History Of Intermodal Containers And The World Trade Commerce

History of Intermodal Containers For a very long time people have been trading goods with each other within their city, out of their city, and even across borders and oceans. As technology has advanced, so has different modes of transportation to make it easier for people to get their products that they need while shipping out products to other people. The world that we live in is a great big place and in order for us humans to survive and grow we need ways to reach out to other people and communicate the things that we need to do that. What I m going to be talking about is the history of intermodal containers and how they play a big role in the world trade commerce. It all started with a man that goes by Malcolm McLean who was born in 1913 in Maxton, North Carolina. Malcolm started out by pumping gas at a local gas station to where he saved up enough money to buy him a truck. From there he created McLean Trucking company, involving his own family members and as Malcolm as one of the drivers they hauled empty tobacco barrels as their first cargo. Since his only pick-up truck in 1934 to 1770 trucks and 32 terminals in 1956, McLean Trucking became the second largest trucking company in the United States, and the first trucking company to appear on the stock exchange. Though all of his success early on, Malcolm sold his interest in his company and wanted to try something different. The idea of transporting trucks on ships during World War II was around but MalcolmShow MoreRelatedDevelopment in Transportation3732 Words   |  15 PagesMakran Coastal Highway was an ancient road within Pakistan. Now its a major road leading to the city of Gwadar.The first methods of road transport were horses, oxen or even humans carrying goods over dirt tracks that often followed game trails. 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Is Abortion A Medical Procedure - 966 Words

Abortion is the name given to a medical procedure, which involves the killing of a foetus, which is a baby. You are one in 250 million sperm cells that made it to the egg to create you surroundings Even at the 6th day you are special, around 2/3rd of embryos fail at this stage, but you made it. You proved that you were healthy enough to be embedded in your mothers lining. By week four your tiny little heart already has a beat. At week four your face has already started to take shape, and at 8 weeks later (week 12) your own unique finger tips are forming. At week 14 your immune system is starting to develop, a week later males are reaching the starting point of their testosterone levels males receive more at this stage and that is how their genitals are formed. Females receive less and that is why they don’t grow penises. At week 28 your eyes are beginning to see your surroundings. Limbs have fully developed by week 11 and you are able to flex them, this is when you are in the process of becoming a left or right handed person, which ever arm you stretched out more or favoured sucking one thumb. There are around 500 abortions per day in the UK; this means one in five pregnancies ending in abortion. This statistic is disgusting, an abortion is murder. If a woman cannot care for a child then she should not take the risk of becoming pregnant. Even the use of contraception is not 100% guaranteed to prevent all pregnancies, but at least the couple is trying to be safe. MostShow MoreRelatedAbortion : A Medical Procedure1213 Words   |  5 PagesAbortion is, as defined by Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary, â€Å"a medical procedure used to end a pregnancy and cause the death of the fetus.† A procedure done within the first 9 weeks of pregnancy is done with medicines and the effects are similar to that of a natural miscarriage. 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Role of Hospital Administrators Process of Synthesising

Question: Describe about the Role of Hospital Administrators for Process of Synthesising. Answer: Introduction Administration is a process of synthesising and activating the potentials of workforce and materials to achieve the defined goals of the organisation. The concept of hospital and health care organisation have changed with the course of time and changing environment in the community (Wilson, 2014). Doctors and healthcare staffs plays essential role at a medical facility by treating medical conditions and diagnosing the patients. But, the success of the healthcare organisation depends up the administrative details like marketing, budgeting and accounting (Mueller, 2012). Hence, the healthcare administrators and managers are an essential character in a healthcare organisation that supports the medical professionals to perform their duties in an effective manner. The primary role of hospital administrator is to maintain a balance between the communitys expectations and internal management of organisation by maintaining a positive relation with the patients and staffs on one side and the health related communities on the other side (Hefferin, Horsley, Ventura, 2012). Hence, the administrators are assigned to a management role in an organisation that makes them the key to improve performance of the firm. It is important for the healthcare administrators to maintain a good relationship with every members of the organisation and promote them to perform well. On the other hand, the administrator has the key responsibility to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of different departments of the organisation (Sakharkar, 2009). Hence, the paper has been developed to analyse the roles and responsibilities of the healthcare administrators and make a discussion on how the administrator ensures that all staffs aligned to their role meet all quality standards for the clients. On the other hand, the study also emphasises on discussing the evaluation methods employed by the administrators in order to measure the efficiency and effectiveness of different departments of the organisation. Hence, an administrator is the key person responsible for planning the activities and evaluating its effectiveness in a healthcare firm. Role of Administrator The hospital and its Organization Hospital or health care organisations are multifaceted firms that comprises of different departments, committees, services and types of personnel. It is a people oriented institution that runs a business along with taking care of the communities (Forrest, Johnson, Mosher, 2016). As healthcare organisations provide medical assistance to the people of the society, it requires well trained and experience professionals capable of delivering high quality services to the clients (Sakharkar, 2009). Hence, the role of the administrators is to maintain the activities of the healthcare institutions and organise the task in an appropriate manner to carry on its operations without any disruption. Hence, organisation is a key element of administration that must be considered while analysing the role of administrator in a hospital. The primary role of healthcare managers or administrators is to maintain a well developed organisation structure that employs a diversified workforce in respect to skills, knowledge and experience. Coordinating with the staffs of the hospital and maintain a good bonding among them is one of the essential role of the healthcare managers (Wilson, 2014). The administrator is responsible to take care of the healthcare quality that are delivered to the patients and maintain a good public relation. Marketing is another primary role of the administrator towards the hospital or organisation. The administrator or healthcare manager needs to take care of all marketing needs and activities and implement a proper management information system that can be used to improve the efficiency of the workforce. The administrator is also responsible for taking care of the ethics and conducts to maintain a harmony at the workplace (Sakharkar, 2009). Hence, it is important for the hospital administrators to understand the roles and responsibilities towards the hospital and the organisation to make the healthcare institution seek growth in the long run. Hospital Administration The healthcare administrators play the management role in an organisation through effective planning and organising of operations. According to Sakharkar (2009), the five major administrative functions of hospital administrator are planning, organizing, controlling, leading and directing, and budgeting. Hence, the functions of hospital administrations that must be conducted by the healthcare managers are discussed in details herein below: Planning Planning is the primary basic function of the hospital administration. It mainly involves the chalking of future actions and decisions that are to be followed to carry on with the operations of the organisation. The hospital administrators make decision regarding the operations for the organisation. They make decision regarding what to do, how to do and when to do. Hence, decision making is an important factor for planning the future actions of the organisation (Ziegenfuss Sassani, 2014). Planning is the determination of the actions that are needed to be conducted to achieve the desired goals of the firm. It is a systematic way of thinking and accomplishing the pre-determined goals. The hospital administrator is the core person responsible for planning all the activities of the firm and executes the actions according to the pre-determined plans (Ziegenfuss Sassani, 2014). Organising Organising is the process of bring together the human, physical and financial resources of the healthcare organisation to develop a productive relationship among them for achieving the goals of the institution. A healthcare organisation has several activities to be conducted on a daily basis. Hence, execution of the plans is only possible with proper organisation of the available resources (Moellering, 2009). The hospital administrators have the role of indentifying the activities and classify the activities into small groups to make it easier for the staffs to execute them. Along with that, the administrators need to assign the duties to each and every member of the organisation depending upon their skills and experience. The hospital administrator has the role of delegating the authority and creates responsibilities by assigning the right job to the right person (Moellering, 2009). It is important for the hospital administrator to coordinate with the higher level officials as well as with the front line staffs to maintain a good relationship among the members of the healthcare institution. Hence, organising is a key administrative function of the hospital managers to seek success in the long run. Leading and Directing The hospital administrator has the key role of leading and directing the human resources of the healthcare organisation. The administrator has the function of manning the structure of the organisation by planning the recruitment process and provides proper training to the employees. They provide remuneration to the staffs and conduct the performance appraisal program in the organisation (McGibony, 2009). The promotions and transfer of the employees depends upon the planning and execution of the administrators. Hence, leading and directing is one of the primary functions of the hospital administration. The administrators are responsible to assign task to the employees and allocate them to particular roles as per their capability. They supervise the performance of the subordinates, motivate to perform well (Kenny, 2012). The administrator acts like a leader in a healthcare institution and communicates with every member to maintain a good relationship amongst the employees. Controlling Controlling is a process of accomplishing standards and measuring the current performance in order to correct any deviation from the achievement of the organisational goals. The primary purpose of controlling is to ensure that all activities are conducted according to the decided standards of the organisation (Dunlap Pillepich, 2014). Hence, the controlling function of the administrators enforced them to check and monitor the performance of the employees to keep a tight control over the operations of the institution. The administrators establish the performance standards and measure the actual performance (Ziegenfuss Sassani, 2014). They need to compare the actual performance with the desired standards and observe the deviation from the actual path. Finally, the role of the administrators is to correct the actions by establishing new strategies. Budgeting Budgeting is one of the most important tasks of the hospital managers or administrators. The administrators are responsible for preparing the periodical budgets of the organisation according to the pre-determined plans (Kenny, 2012). Budgets are prepared by observing the cost and expenditure of the previous years and appropriate amount of money is allocated to each department depending upon the pre-determined budgets (Dunlap Pillepich, 2014). The administrator is responsible for ordering the supplies and inventories of the institution and remunerates the employees of the firm. Hence, it is important for the hospital administrators to evaluate the expenditures incurred by the healthcare organisation to maintain a positive financial position of the firm. The administrators look after the activities of the accountants and implement the best accounting solutions to make the task effective and efficient. Nursing Services The hospital administrators are responsible to take care of the quality of the nursing services that are provided to the clients to enhance the reputation of the firm in the community (Forrest, Johnson, Mosher, 2016). The nursing service administrators are responsible for managing the nursing care services and programs to ensure high quality services to the clients. It involves monitoring the performance of the nursing staffs and ensures that the activities are conducted by considering the healthcare standards and practices set by the regulating bodies and the organisation itself (Hefferin, Horsley, Ventura, 2012). The nursing administrators hire the nursing staffs, supervise them and conduct a performance evaluation. The nursing administrators coordinates the staff budgeting, purchases supplies and equipments, assign resources, and provides proper training for career development. The nursing administrators are also expected to create new programs and services for both nursing and patient staffs. They are responsible for developing nursing procedures, policies, and standards. Furthermore, the administrators are responsible for ensuring that the nursing units meet all the rules and regulations of the government healthcare authorities (Hefferin, Horsley, Ventura, 2012). The nursing administrators work together with the patients and staffs to resolve any care or treatment issues. Along with that, they coordinate the training and development programs for the nursing staffs (Ziegenfuss Sassani, 2014). The nursing administrators are responsible for instructing the patients family about the post hospital care and communicate with the senior hospital management and physicians regarding the nursing activities of the organisation (Mueller, 2012). Additionally, the nursing administrators work together with external organisations and other departments of the organisatio n to ensure best patient care services provided to the clients. Clinical Support Services Support service associates have played a significant role in healthcare facilities. Amidst the continuing changing environment of healthcare background, hospital administrators have been responsible for reducing cost of the business as well as improving the status of patient care attached to the hospital setting (Conway, 2009). First of all, identifying the available clinical support services of the healthcare organisation, hospital administrator is accountable to control every possible physicians activities building cooperation. Understandably, clinical support services of a hospital include registered nurses, medical staffs and medical doctors (Kenny, 2012). In order to exhibit superior support services, healthcare administrator must figure out significant ways to deliver sustainability in managing the registered nurses, medical staffs and doctors of the hospital (Kovner Neuhauser, 2014). As the support service personnel of any hospital have contributed majorly to satisfy the pati ents and their families, it is the responsibility of the hospital administrator to improve the facilities given to the support services staffs. Therefore, in order to improve the standards of hospital support services department, it is the duty of the administrator to increase professed organisational support among the support services employees. Furthermore, the distribution of the support services tasks must be given according to the schedule to reduce the job-related stress among the subordinates (Stillwaggon, 2014). Admittedly, by doing so, the hospital administrator develops job satisfaction and commitment of the staffs to create an efficient support services team. Decisively, in promoting ethics, culture and career sustainability, administrator influences collaboration, teamwork and efficiency of the support services to aid healthcare facilities on a larger scale (Tabish, 2010). Precisely, in healthcare management, it is accountability of the administrator to improve the productivity of support services through evidence-based moves creating a well-organised collaboration between the nursing activities and support services teamwork (Marziali, Damianakis, Donahue, 2016). In order to maintain a clean and healthy environment around the hospital premises, the role of the support service department is inevitable, to say the least. Hence, integrated support service must be monitored in accordance with adequate proficiency standards to meet the clinical needs and responsibility (Sakharkar, 2009). As the nursing staffs have sometimes been forced to work with the limited resources due to shortened facilities in hospitalisation, the administrator of a hospital must increase the responsibility of the support service team to reduce the stress from the nursing staffs. Thus, a well-designed management facility can be structured to maintain the highest medical standards of the patients care (Tabish, 2010). Meanwhile, the intervention of administrator is highly instinctive to create a focused work schedule of support services team representing a healthcare organisation. Administrative Services Administrative duties and responsibilities are identified as the most obvious role for a hospital administrative during the course of the time. Being a healthcare executive, it is the accountability of the designation to address staff management, legal obedience and budget status of the healthcare firm. Precisely, for a generalist administrator, who manages entire facilities of the administration, may sometimes find it extensively difficult. Meanwhile, it is the independent responsibility of the administrator to verify the entire legal adherence associated with the healthcare facilities (D'Orazio, Snook, Paul, 2014). For instance, a healthcare administrator must identify the legal terms in relevance to medical operations, constitutional role, MTP Act, CPA Regulations and other statutory responsibilities (Kawamoto, 2010). Apart from that, the administrator has to deal with employment and labour laws on the basis of the legal terms. Correspondently, it is also the duty of the administ rator to overview the patient billing, health insurance terms, insurance fraud related issues and confidentiality of the patient (Lamprey, 2014). Staff management has been identified as one of the crucial administrative duties for a healthcare administrator. According to the demand of the healthcare operations, the administrator needs to dictate the terms to position the staffs and nursing personnel to fulfil the supply maintenance (Syed, Sekhar, F., 2013). The positioning of staffs to the appropriate system can be difficult at times as significant issues can be created during the management of human resources. Hence, execution of backup plan has been crucial to identifying the efficiency of an administrator to manage the staffs uniformly (Sakharkar, 2009). In a larger healthcare facility, the role of the administrator has been divided according to the different section for better management and strategic planning. Also, a public health administrator has to take excessive responsibility to make sure that significant training and development facilities must be provided to the new talents to maintain medical efficiency and stan dards of the firm. Moreover, monitoring of the management proceedings and provide significant compensation to the staff members have been assigned to the duty of healthcare administrator (Ziegenfuss Sassani, 2014). In addition to the management role, the administrator is liable to maintain the budget according to the requirement of the healthcare. By following the guidelines and financial status of the healthcare business, accounting and budgeting system must be adhered by the hospital administrator so that current staffing compensation, medical equipment and latest technology can be utilised within the medical facilities for best services to the patient care (Brown, 2012). Furthermore, the administrator must identify to reduce the running cost by cutting down unwanted and unproductive costs of management. Decisively, the budget figures for the healthcare services must be distributed in an efficient order so that training and development facilities will be improved to increase the potential skills of the new talents (Kovner Neuhauser, 2014). Thus, the organisation can increase its productivity and retain best staff members for long-run. Functional Hospital Organization In healthcare management, promoting quality has been recognised as one of the key concepts from successful managements perspective. Therefore, in executive management, role of the administrator is massively elevated to precede regular functions of the healthcare organisation in a convenient process. Meanwhile, system guidelines must be produced by the administrator to be followed by the organisational staffs to attain maximum value (McGibony, 2009). Invariably, the corporate design has to be constructed by the administrator so that a mix of technology, information and corporate people can deliver the most efficient services according to the demand of the healthcare. Based on the priorities, significant quality enhancement initiatives must have been promoted by the healthcare administrator to promote service quality of the healthcare unit. Understandably, it is the earnest responsibility of the administrator to develop a precisely less centralised functional orientation in the service line so that it will evidently support the quality management system. In the contemporary business scenario, product and service-line can be identified as two fundamental designs in healthcare organisations to be delivered (Tabish, 2010). For instance, a number of clinical departments, nursing facilities, laboratory services, pathological services, and complementary healthcare services are somewhat mandatory to show the quality and efficiency of the healthcare unit. By understanding the strategic perspective of the healthcare organisation, it is the accountability of the administrator to align the corporate strategy to the overall business strategy through prioritising strategic change. By developing discipline-oriented functional specialisation area within the healthcare organisation, an administrator can deliver high-end administrative as well as clinical support services to the patients care (Simon, 2008). Tactically, in case of large healthcare organisation, administrators have unanimously identified uniform corporate strategy through balance scorecard of every department. Thus, decision-making has become easier leading to change in order to realign strategic management goal for functional restructuring. Moreover, the hospital administrator has to determine the functions of other sections so that the eventual system can influence the productivity of the staffs. Herein, intervention of the information management system has needed to be review ed by the administrator for betterment of the organisational functions (Kovner Neuhauser, 2014). Prominently, a systematic functional healthcare organisation can independently operate if the administrator has evidently promoted significant structure as per the requirement. By identifying the role of the each section, most efficient functional structure must be brought forward to meet the overall target of the organisation. In this way, a reliable and experienced healthcare administrator can improve the organisational functionality to a certain standard (Wilson, 2014). Evaluation of the role of administrator Healthcare evaluation is one of the most important role and function of the hospital administrator. After planning the activities and organising the resources, it is important for the administrators to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of every department and functions in order to promote the growth of the healthcare institution (Greenes, 2007). The effectiveness is related to the benefits delivered by the improvement of the healthcare organisation (Snook Zimmerman, 2014). On the other hand, the efficiency is measured by analysing the cost of the healthcare outputs in regards to the benefits obtained by incurring the cost. Furthermore, the administrators are responsible for evaluating the acceptability of the healthcare services rendered by the organisation (Greenes, 2007). In the designing of an evaluation of the clinical support services team, eponymous framework can be identified to show the best findings. Invariably, evaluation can be considered in a prospective or retrospective channel. Through planned data collection method, prospective evaluation can be done (Snook Zimmerman, 2014). Through the significant healthcare evaluation framework, SMART objectives can be recognised to evaluate each of the dimensions to be measured. SMART i.e. specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and timely objectives can show the efficiency and effectiveness of the role of administrator to developing productive clinical support service facilities (Ballantyne, Dai, Gray, 2016). Through the understanding of the existing trend of healthcare services evaluation, external assessment i.e. National Patient Survey must have been promoted to identify how effectively the patients have been reacted towards the patient care services issued by the administrators. On the basi s of the outcome of the survey report, measurable interventions and economic evaluation of the system can be produced (Schlairet, Kiser, Norris, 2012). Different measures are used to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of the healthcare performance. Sakharkar (2009) introduced four primary measures for analysing the effectiveness and efficiency of the healthcare services. These four measures are known as inputs, process, outcomes and outputs. Input presents the resources, costs, time and expenditures that are used in the intervention to conduct the activities. On the other hand, process presents the activities that are conducted to carry on the healthcare services (Wacht, 2012). Outputs are the program or interventions that are produced by the organisation and the outcomes are the results in form of the benefits and disadvantages that are caused by the programs or interventions. Furthermore, the outcomes are compared with the SMART objectives after considering the inputs, process and outputs to observe the gaps in the healthcare services (Vila Buccellato, 2016). Finally, the administrator plans new strategies and changes in t he services to improve the current status of the healthcare services. Hence, the administrator needs to evaluate the performance of the healthcare staffs considering the outcomes and outputs of the entire process. The administrator needs to compare the results with the objectives goals of the organisation by continuously interacting with the lower level staffs and other medical professionals of the organisation (Wacht, 2012). The administrator will take care of the activities and collect feedbacks from the clients and other employees of the organisation to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of the healthcare services. During the time of the evaluation of administrative services, the role of the administrator will be evident, to say the least. Usually, for such event of evaluation of the services, both qualitative and quantitative studies will be considered as ideal for eventual outcome. By undertaking interviews with the healthcare employees can increase the sample size effective for relevant study (Wilson, 2014). Meanwhile, the qualitative sample must ensure that the entire staff group of the healthcare association were taken into consideration. During the quantitative study measures, software such as Stata can be identified as suitable instrument to investigate the response of the staff members, patients and their families in a statistical way (Chatfield, 2009). After the statistical outcome, significant assessment has been made to show the ultimate result of the adopted administrative services. Last but not the least; evaluation of the hospital organisational structure will be mandatory for the study to identify how the framework of services has delivered sustainability to the healthcare organisation (Wilson, 2014). Providing additional insights from the managements viewpoint, the role of the functional hospital organisation has been investigated to influence the performance and productivity of other departments. Also, the cost of the structure must be taken into identification to show the benefits of the system, if any. Meanwhile, the measurement of the evaluation programme will depend on the design of the framework to link the objectives with the overall achievements through the healthcare functions (Schermerhorn, 2014). Undoubtedly, during the assessment, both the patient party as well as the staff members must be included in the study to provide a clear outcome. Clearly, the evaluation framework will identify the success rate of the activities implemented by the adminis trator during the course of the time in hospital management to achieve the overall objectives. Conclusion The study has critically identified the role of a healthcare administrator in a detailed way to understand the accountability and duties. Precisely, healthcare administrators are liable to influence the organisational members affiliated with the hospitals. Through the introduction of significant planning for suitable management, executives have contributed massively in leading the business sustainability. Meanwhile, by identifying regular interventions among the nursing staffs, clinical support members and medical staffs, an explicit collaboration must be featured within the management. Decisively, in the contemporary business scenario, a single healthcare administrator is not recommended for large-scale healthcare organisations as there are different administration sections to be dealt with in an efficient order. Hence, for better management of the proceedings, distinct administrators will be perfect to handle each of the sections efficiently. Furthermore, on the basis of the evolutionary model, the role of the administrator must be improved on a regular basis so that the ever-changing features of healthcare sector must be met. Predominantly, the productivity of the administrative services, nursing services and clinical support services can be elevated through quality assessment of the administrative functions as described in the study. Apparently, the effectiveness and efficiency level of the regulatory role must be compared with the benchmark functionality to ensure quality services and management of staffing without issues. References Ballantyne, A., Dai, E., Gray, B. (2016). Patient participation in clinical ethics support services - Patient-centered care, justice and cultural competence.Clinical Ethics. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1477750916661976 Brown, E. (2012).Improving staff motivation and competence in the general hospital. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Chatfield, M. (2009). Understanding Hospital Financial Management.Health Care Management Review,4(2), 72. https://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004010-197900420-00013 Conway, M. (2009). Knowledge Generation and Transmission: A Role for the Nurse Administrator.Nursing Administration Quarterly,3(4), 29-44. https://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006216-197900340-00005 D'Orazio, L., Snook, I., Paul, L. (2014).Opportunities in Health and Medical Careers. Blacklick, USA: McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing. Dunlap, J. Pillepich, M. (2014). Development of General Education in Collegiate Nursing Programs: Role of the Administrator.The American Journal Of Nursing,64(8), 143. https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3419303 Forrest, C., Johnson, A., Mosher, J. (2016). The Changing Role of the Hospital Administrator.Academy Of Management Proceedings,1976(1), 434-438. https://dx.doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.1976.4975922 Greenes, R. (2007).Clinical decision support. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. Hefferin, E., Horsley, J., Ventura, M. (2012). Promoting Research-Based Nursing.JONA: The Journal Of Nursing Administration,12(5), 3443. https://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005110-198205000-00009 Kawamoto, K. (2010). System-Agnostic Clinical Decision Support Services: Benefits and Challenges for Scalable Decision Support.The Open Medical Informatics Journal,4(1), 245-254. https://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874431101004010245 Kenny, J. (2012).Principles of medical ethics. Westminster, Md.: Newman Press. Kovner, A. Neuhauser, D. (2014).Health services management. Chicago, IL: Health Administration Press. Lamprey, J. (2014).Quality assessment screening criteria for clinical support services. Chicago, Ill.: InterQual. Marziali, E., Damianakis, T., Donahue, P. (2016). Internet-Based Clinical Services: Virtual Support Groups for Family Caregivers.Journal Of Technology In Human Services,24(2-3), 39-54. https://dx.doi.org/10.1300/j017v24n02_03 McGibony, J. (2009).Principles of hospital administration. New York: Putnam. Moellering, J. (2009). The Evolving Study of Nursing Satisfaction with Support Services in the Clinical Setting.Nurse Leader,7(3), 21-23. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mnl.2009.04.005 Mueller, W. (2012). Hospital Financial Management.Financial Management,1(1), 58. https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3664952 Sakharkar, B. (2009).Principles of hospital administration and planning. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers. Schermerhorn, J. (2014). Hospital Administrator Openness to Programs of Inter-Hospital Cooperation.Academy Of Management Proceedings,1974(1), 80-80. https://dx.doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.1974.17531649 Schlairet, M., Kiser, K., Norris, S. (2012). Clinical ethics support services: An evolving model.Nursing Outlook,60(5), 309-315. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.outlook.2012.01.002 Simon, J. (2008). Marketing The Community Hospital: A Tool for the Beleaguered Administrator.Health Care Management Review,3(2), 11-23. https://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004010-197800320-00004 Snook, I. Zimmerman, G. (2014). Management Tools for the Modern Day Health Administrator.Hospital Topics,62(1), 11-12. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00185868.1984.9948344 Stillwaggon, E. (2014). Better economic tools for evaluating health and development investments.AIDS,28(3), 435-437. https://dx.doi.org/10.1097/qad.0000000000000077 Syed, A., Sekhar, C., F., S. (2013). Leadership Styles and Emotional Intelligence among Hospital Managers.Management Today, 24-29. https://dx.doi.org/10.11127/gmt.2013.02.03 Tabish, S. (2010).Principles of hospital administration. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Vila, L. Buccellato, V. (2016). Implementation of a sustainable enterprise risk management framework: The Administrator on Duty model.JHA,5(2). https://dx.doi.org/10.5430/jha.v5n2p80 Wacht, R. (2012). Toward Rationality in the Allocation of Hospital Resources.Financial Management,1(1), 66. https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3664954 Wilson, C. (2014). Evaluating communication to optimise consumer-directed energy efficiency interventions.Energy Policy,74, 300-310. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2014.08.025 Ziegenfuss, J. Sassani, J. (2014).The portable health administration. Amsterdam: Academic Press.

The Drovers Wife Portrays the Willpower of Australians Essay Example

The Drovers Wife: Portrays the Willpower of Australians? Essay In the character of the drovers wife, Lawson has constructed a portrait of stoic ism, endurance and resilience in the face of poverty, isolation, fear and danger. Ex people how Lawson has successfully used the character of the drovers wife to convey distinctively visual image of the courage of so many Australians living in the 1 9th Century. The 19th century was a difficult time to live in and so many Australians made I t through their live with endurance, courage and resilience. Henry Lawson conveys the willow were of the Australian living in this time through the story, The Drovers Wife. This story revolves around a mother of three that is threatened by a snake and flashbacks that expresses t he courage and strength that women in the asss possessed. The use of visual imagery, symbol ism and dialogue help to shine light upon the women that suffer silently in the backer mound. In this story, the drovers wife is a mother of three and is raising them in the b SSH alone. She is alone because her husband is a drover and need to be out for a couple of MO nth to work. The book presents a lot of visual imagery to project an idea of what the lands cape look like, in his case, the environment creates feelings of isolation and monotony; the buy SSH has no horizon,no ranges in the distance and no undergrowth. We will write a custom essay sample on The Drovers Wife: Portrays the Willpower of Australians? specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Drovers Wife: Portrays the Willpower of Australians? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Drovers Wife: Portrays the Willpower of Australians? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Pathetic fallacy is n play, showing the reader a glimpse of the bleakness and emptiness in the bushmans life. This presents the courage of this one woman that speaks for all. The Drovers wife is able to confront all her challenges simplemindedly and eve ere difficult experience shes had is in the absence of her husband. She raised her children n on her own and constantly protects them from dangers.

How to Translate the French Expression De Rien

How to Translate the French Expression 'De Rien' The French phrase  de rien  (pronounced deu-r yeh) is one that many students  learn to translate as youre welcome. But this common expression of courtesy actually means something slightly different. Its not considered improper or impolite to use  de rien  when someone thanks you, but there are other words that may be more appropriate. Usage The closest English equivalent to de rien is its nothing, which is not the nicest way to acknowledge gratitude. De rien isnt wrong, exactly, but its not as polite as what native French speakers typically say: je vous en prie you are welcome (literally, I beg of you)je ten prie youre welcome (to a friend)cest moi qui vous remercie (or just cest moi) no, thank you (literally, it is I who thanks you)merci vous / toi thank you (literally, (my) thanks to you)pas de quoi, il ny a pas de quoi (informal) dont mention it (literally, no need, theres is no need)avec plaisir (South of France) my pleasure (literally, with pleasure) Example Merci, jai beaucoup aimà © ce livre. Thank you, I really liked this book​ De rien!   Youre welcome!

Research various techniques such as lighting, sound, shot types etc, used by directors in their films Essays

Research various techniques such as lighting, sound, shot types etc, used by directors in their films Essays Research various techniques such as lighting, sound, shot types etc, used by directors in their films Essay Research various techniques such as lighting, sound, shot types etc, used by directors in their films Essay The aim of my illustrated essay is to research various techniques such as lighting, sound, shot types etc, used by directors in their films. From this research I wish to discover what has influenced the directors and how they have used the various techniques to portray a sense of empathy, tension and suspense in particular scenes throughout their films. I aim to I gain inspiration for my own film by doing this and be able to apply my findings to one of my experimental pieces and my short film. In mainstream and experimental filming/cinema performance details create and keep up a directors overall vision. Depending on what the director wishes to achieve, they will talk with the actors and discuss how the actors should behave on set. The actor may be told to use limited or controlled movements to portray a character that is worried or on edge about something, while another works in contrast to them using light and free-floating movements to portray a character that is open to experience. Sudden and abrupt bursts of words can be used to show that a character is alarmed or perhaps even annoyed about something, whilst a smooth, sustained, smooth vocal rhythm can be used to show that the character is relaxed and at ease. Nearer to the beginning of my film, I will be instructing my actors to use a smooth vocal rhythm as I intend for them to appear relaxed and happy at the beginning. However, nearing the end of my film, I will hopefully be able to create a sense of frustration or anxiety by having my actors use sudden bursts of words followed by short periods of silence, hopefully portraying the feeling of suspense, tension and awkwardness between the two characters. In mainstream and experimental cinema, dramatic and comedic narratives, a films presentation of performance will also reflect the directors stylistic vision. Films present performances in different ways because different directors make different uses of actors expressivity, which is the degree to which actors do or do not project characters experiences. Presentation of performance differs from film to film as directors make different uses of cinematic expressivity, or the degree to which other cinematic elements enhance or somehow mediate and modify access to actors performances. Working in different periods, aesthetic movements, and production regimes, directors have presented performances in markedly different ways. Sensible directors use manipulative emotions as an important tool to convey the right impact. Richard Attenboroughs Gandhi is one of the classic examples of using manipulative emotions to your advantage. Mel Gibsons The Passion of The Christ is another example of this, but to say it is a highly manipulative film would be an understatement. On The Passion of The Christ, MS Sathyu the director of Garam Hawa one of the very first films on partition said We all know Jesus was beaten black and blue before he was Crucified, but do we have to see all the 50-100 times he was whipped to feel the pain. This is exactly what Mel Gibson did in The Passion of The Christ, and it proved very successful for him, so maybe people do like to view things in detail. In my film however, I will not be paying as much attention to detail as Mel Gibson in this particular film. As my film is only three to six minutes long I must be straight to the point. At one end of the spectrum, directors use performance elements as pieces of the films audiovisual design. In these films, actors often hold in their emotion, and the films non-performance elements i.e. cinematography, become especially important. This approach to presenting performances is found in many modernist films, which often use framing, editing, and sound to prevent identification with characters. Baz Luhrmanns work with production designer Catherine Martin on Romeo ; Juliet (1996) resulted in a film in which actors physical signs of heightened emotion are shown in tight framings which come together as parts of a wider picture that is packed with outstanding costumes, frantic camera movements, and dizzying editing patterns. I wish to adapt some of these editing editing patterns into my film, which will hopefully be achieved through the use an effect in Final Cut named blur. Like other post-modern films from around the world, the performances in Romeo ; Juliet are sometimes extremely short and minimalist, and at other times highly exaggerated and extremely dramatic. As if mirroring current television and new media experiences, the framing, editing, and sound techniques in Luhrmanns Romeo Juliet sometimes block access to characters experiences; at other times the films non-performance elements enhance identification with characters by exaggerating the magnitude of their personal experiences. Due to my actors lack of experience and knowledge of techniques, non-performance elements will play a key role in the making of my film. For inspiration I have analysed the scene in Romeo Juliet in which the pair commit the act of suicide through the use of poison. Luhrmanns climactic death scene features only romeo and juliet, whereas Shakespeares play also includes Friar Laurence and the slain bodies of Paris and Tybalt. The inclusion of only the two lovers focuses the conflict on the tragic failure of their happiness and love. From the beginning of Romeos monologue in this scene to the end the shots are all close-ups of Romeo and Juliet. CUs are often used as cutaways from a more distant shot in order to show details such as characters emotions as it is used in this particular scene in Romeo ; Juliet. In closer analysis we see that their two faces are always in the same frame until Juliet awakens. The background setting of the scene is luxuriant, as the viewer sees when Romeo makes his entrance, but it is not included in the scene once he has approached Juliet. By excluding all other detailing from the shot further emphasizes the single theme here which is the sadness felt by these two young lovers. The theme here is not thoughtlessness of these youths or the clashing of social groups, instead it is the failure of a romance in the face of social disorder. Therefore, in the climax of my short film, I will exclude all other detailing from the frame in an attempt to emphasise my characters emotions.

Personal impression of English class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Personal impression of English class - Essay Example When I write, I know I'm leaving a permanent record of my thoughts and visions. I will be judged by the readers who share my writing and it's important to me to be perceived as a competent writer. It gives me a sense of pride and a feeling that I have created a worthwhile essay. The hours spent formulating the idea, outlining, and drafting is hours well spent when I get a feeling of accomplishment at the successful completion of an essay assignment. I especially enjoy the ability to paint a picture, complete with sights and sounds, using only the printed word. One of my favorite descriptions came from an essay I wrote titled "Ocean City: The Best Place to Be!": Ocean City has street parties that clean away the restlessness and replaces it with laughter. Cozy, Old World cafes touched with that European flavor give diners a feeling of sophistication and class; and spontaneous dancing venues with swirling lights, swimsuit-clad bodies, and reggae and salsa music encourage relaxation, cel ebration, and fun. This description of Ocean City gives a feeling of being in the middle of the activity and spending a carefree day with the crowds. It invokes sight, sounds, colors, and smells, I very much enjoyed writing it as I imagined myself at the beach. I have learned that visualizing the setting, the people, and the situation aids me in the ability to describe it. Another skill I have acquired that adds quality to my essays is knowing when not to write too much and conclude the essay with an appropriate closing.

Global Changes and Developing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Global Changes and Developing - Assignment Example National, organizational and group cultures are greatly influenced by the leadership styles that exist in each culture. For example, the management style, vision and the personality of a leader greatly affect the behaviour and performance of the people under him or her. In addition, the tradition and the history of the country, organization or the group affect the performance of the individuals in that nation, group or organization. For example, if the forefathers of a given nation strived and hard worked and managed to achieve their desired goals as independence, then the citizens of that nation would automatically develop a culture of hardworking and striving in order to achieve their goals. Moreover, the set goals, beliefs, symbols and values of a given nation, organization or group influence their corresponding cultures. For example, the symbols in the national flag, organization or group dictate much about the goals, vision and mission of that state or organization (Schriesheim & Neider 2006). Consequently, there are many instances where national, organization and group culture conflict in one way of the other. In most cases, conflicts arise when one culture interferes with the culture of the other group, nation or organization. However, the existence of cultures helps in shaping the behaviours of individuals and their performance (Schriesheim & Neider 2006). It is, therefore, evident that, culture is an integral aspect in structuring the expected dos and donts of individuals in an organization or group. Moreover, each organization or group should respect the culture of each other to ensure peaceful

Nepal Essay Essay Example for Free

Nepal Essay Essay Introduction I am doing my report on a country by the name of Nepal. The formal name is The Kingdom of Nepal. The term for citizens is Nepalese. The capital of Nepal is Katmandu. Nepal became independent in 1768 when a number of independent hill states were unified by Prithri Narayan Shah as the Kingdom of Gorkha. The area of Nepal is 56,827 square miles. Its population according to the 1991 census was 18,462, 081. Nepal is located between China and India. Population The most recent information about Nepals population is in the year of 1994. It was an estimate of about 20,000,000. At this time the average family was made up of 5.9 persons, and the life expectancy was about 50 years. About 70 percent of the total population was of working age, or between the ages of fifteen and fifty-nine years of age. Nearly 44 percent of the population is in the Terai Region, 48 percent in the Mountain Region. In 1981 the capital, Katmandu , had a population of 235,160. Government Nepal has a constitutional monarchy government. The multiparty democracy established along with the November 1990 constitution which replaced the panchayat system. Education The education system has expanded rapidly since 1951. Right now there are elementary and high schools found in most areas of the country. Tribharan University was established in 1961 to serve as the hub of a higher education system. The literacy rate is still only an estimated fifteen percent, with most of the literate population concentrated in Katmandu Valley and in the Terai. Language In Nepal there are numerous languages spoken which is a problem because they do not belong to the same family group. The most common and national language , Nepali, stems form the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo European family. Nepali is spoken by 60 percent of the population. A second category of languages in Nepal is the Tibeto- Burman languages, of which the most common are Newer, Magarkura, Gurangkura, Karin and Limbuani. Religion and Society Religion occupies an integral position in Nepalese life and society. The main religion in Nepal is Hinduism , but much of the population follows an unorthodox Buddhism strongly affected by mixtures of Hinduism. The fact that Hindus worship in Buddhist temples and Buddhists worship in Hindus temples has been one of the main reasons followers of the two dominate groups in Nepal have never engaged in any conflicts. Because of such dual faith practices the differences between Hindus and Buddhists have been generally in nature. In 1991 about 89.5 percent of the Nepalese people indenified themselves as Hindus. Buddhists and Muslims occupied only 5.3 and 2.7 percent. The remainder religion is Christianity. At least 87 percent of the population in every region is made of Hindus. Buddhists are mostly found in the Eastern Hills, the Katmandu Valley, and the Central Terai, in each area about 10 percent of the people were Buddhist. Terai The Terai region of Nepal is a low, fertile alluvial plain, in effect the northern extrusion of the Ganges plain. It is 20 miles wide at its broadest point and extends over most of the southern edge. North of this, bordering the forests of the Bhabar and Chria Hills, the Terai is marshy and malaria is endemic. A green belt of excellent timber parallels or dense elephant grass growing to a height of 15 feet. Climate The climate is moderate only in the mountain valleys, about 5,000 feet above sea level. The rest of Nepal is either extremely hot, as in the Terai, climate changes sharply with elevation. In the Himalayas, exposure to the sun and to rain-bearing winds produce complex patterns of local climates. Average temperatures in the Katmandu Valley range form 50 degrees in January to 78 degrees in July. Rainfall mainly  occurs between June and September. The dry season is November to January. Agriculture About 90 percent of Nepals working force is directly engaged in agricultural pursuits. Arable land is at 30 percent of the total land area, of which 60 percent is classified as suitable for wet cultivation and 30 percent for dry cultivation. The main crops are rice, corn, millet, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, fruits, and vegetables. Rice is grown in the Teria, Katmandu Valley , and the lower hill area. Corn and millet are the main crops at higher altitudes , which is about 6,000 feet above sea level. Annual Rainfall Fire climate zones based on altitude range from subtropical in the South, to cool summers and severe winters in the North. The annual rainfall depends on a monsoon cycle which provides 60 to 80 percent of the total rainfall. The Eastern part of the country get the most with 2,500 millimeters. The Katmandu averages around 1,420 millimeters. And Western Nepal gets around 1,000 millimeters. Himalayans The Himalayans are what Nepal is known for. The Himalayans were formed about 60 million years ago, When the earths continents were still forming, a part of east Africa broke loose and began to driff slowly northward. When it rammed into Asia , the force of the collision caused the land to crumple up into a vast mountain range. More than 1,000 miles long and hundreds of miles wide. This system contains some of the highest mountains in the world. The most famous of these is Mount Everest. Bibliography Norton, Peter B., and Joseph J. Esposito. Nepal.  Encyclopedia Britanica. 1995. Boehm, Richard G. World Geography. Westerville: The McGraw-Hill. 1997.

Hitlers Rise To Power :: essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The name Hitler stirs up many emotions inside the hearts of people. What could have made Hitler so hostile towards the Jews? Could it have been his unhappy childhood, frustrated adolecsnce, his artistic disappointment, rejection from the Jewish society or merely the wound he received on the front during World War I. Adolf Hitler or the incarnation of absolute evil became dictator of Germany in 1933 and prepared his nation for war and a â€Å"Final Solution† to the â€Å"Jewish problem†. Hitler posed a great threat to democracy and redefined the meaning of evil for eternity. Hitler’s undeniable hatred for Jews crushed his dream of a â€Å"third Reich† and only created more anguish, and enmity among the people of Germany.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  World War I was a great disparagement to the German people. Despair increased as the army returned to a bankrupt country. Millions of Germans could not find work, and a weak republic had replaced the defeated Germany. The German people were humiliated and full of distress. They were looking for many ways to restore their dignity and pride, but little did they know that things would get much worse. â€Å"The rain of inflation fell on the just and the unjust alike†(Flood 313) By 1923, Germany was facing deep troubles. There was major inflation and the majority of the population was poverty stricken. Problems were beginning to escalate while Germany was in a dismal economic state, shops were closing and, no 1   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  profits in production resulted in vast unemployment. Hungry and miserable the people turned to Hitler. He was a skillful schemer, politician, and organizer. This was Hitler's opportunity to preach amongst the German people. Hitler preached German superiority, more precisely to the Aryan race. Since the country was in total and complete chaos after the war, and was forced to pay billions of dollars in reparations, the German people saw some sort of hope in Hitler. Germany lost a large amount of its territory. The Empire was no more. â€Å"Hitler saw an opportunity and moved to grasp it† (Alexandria 75). When he took power the economy was basically non existent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hitler did not believe in total truth, instead he relied on halve truths, and big lies. For example he believed that the Jews were a sub -human race, that should be treated terribly and be completely disposed of. The German Workers' Party appealed to Hitler even though they were small, disorganized, and led by a group of misfits.

Challenges and Opportunities for Ob

ORB PQ Chapter 3 : Attitudes and Job Satisfaction1. Which of the following answer choices is the best definition of attitude? a. Attitudes indicate how one will react to a given event. b. Attitudes are the yardstick by which one measures one’s actions. c. Attitudes are the emotional part of an evaluation of some person, object or event. d. Attitudes are evaluative statements concerning objects, people or events e. Attitudes are a measure of how the worth of an object, person or event is evaluated. 2. The belief that â€Å"violence is wrong† is a evaluative statement. Such an opinion constitutes the component of an attitude. . cognitive b. affective c. reflective d. behavioral e. reactive 3. The _____ component of an attitude is the emotional or feeling component of that attitude. a. affective b. cognitive c. behavioral d. evaluative e. reaffective 4. The following are possible actions that an individual may take if they behave in a way that is inconsistent with an attitude that they hold: I: change the behavior II: change the attitude III: rationalize the behavior IV: ignore the inconstancy Which of these actions are the most likely to be taken? a. Either I, or II b. Either III or IV c. One of I, II or III . One of I, III or IV e. One of II, III or IV 5. Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes results in _____. a. organizational dissonance b. cognitive dissonance c. attitudinal clarification d. values clarification e. affective reactance 6. The theory of cognitive dissonance was proposed by ______________. a. Maslow b. Festinger c. Hofstede d. Skinner e. Pavlov 7. â€Å"Dissonance† means ______________. a. reactance b. constance c. resistance d. consistency e. inconsistency 8. According to Festinger, people will seek a(an) ________________________. a. ariable state with variable dissonance b. stable state with maximal dissonance c. unstable state with maximal dissonance d. unstable state with minimal dissonance e. stable state with minimal dissonance 9. Festinger proposed that the desire to reduce dissonance is determined by three factors including the_________________. a. values of the elements creating the dissonance b. degree of influence the individual believes he or she has over the elements c. degree of positive affect the person has toward the behavior d. fact that values and attitudes will vary over the short term e. wareness that dissonance exists 10. The primary organizational implication of cognitive dissonance theory is that it helps to predict _____. a. overall job satisfaction for employees b. the likelihood of a given employee engaging in impression management c. the overall level to which the workforce will accept gender, racial or other types of bias d. the willingness of the workforce to accept company rules and work practices e. the propensity to engage in attitude and behavioral change of the workforce 11. Which of the following is not a moderating variable of the A-B relationship? . direct experience b. consistency c. specificity d. accessibility e. importance 12. The theory that attitudes are used, after the fact, to make sense out of action that has already occurred is best explained by ______________. a. cognitive dissonance b. escalation of commitment c. self perception theory d. uncertainty avoidance e. organizational commitment 13. The E. M. Foster quote, â€Å"How can I know what I think ‘til I see what I say? † reflects the notions captured by ______________ theory. a. cognitive dissonance b. escalation of commitment c. self perception d. ncertainty avoidance e. social affirmation 14. The degree to which a person identifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her performance as being important to self-worth is _________________. a. job satisfaction b. job involvement c. job stability d. organizational commitment e. social embeddedness 15. ________________ can be defined as a positive feeling about one’s job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. a. Job satisfaction b. Job involvement c. Job stability d. Organizational commitment e. Social investment 16.In her work in the publishing industry, Vera seeks out new authors who she considers promising. In the past two years she has found a number of new writers whose work she thought was exceptional, and immersed herself in the task of helping them shape their manuscripts for submission to her managers for publishing. Although she was extremely proud of the results, none of the authors she worked with were chosen for publication. Vera believes that the decision not to publish these authors was based on personal rivalries within management, rather than the quality of her writers’ work.She is extremely frustrated, dreads coming into work each morning and is seriously thinking of resigning. How can Vera’s job attitudes best be described? a. low job satisfaction and low job involvement b. low job satisfaction and high job involvement c. high job satisfaction and low job involvement d. high job satisfaction and high job involvement e. low organizational commitment17. Organiza tional commitment is defined as ___________________________. a. the degree to which an employee identifies with the organization they work for and its goals b. n employee’s belief that the organization they work for will go to considerable lengths to ensure that its employees are treated fairly c. the degree to which an employee’s sense of fulfillment and self worth is related to their job d. the amount of effort an employee will make in order to keep or advance their position in an organization e. the degree to which an employee believes their work impacts their organization18. Of the following, the best predictor of turnover is ______________. a. job satisfaction b. job involvement c. organizational commitment d. cognitive dissonance e. ffective dissonance19. The following are methods of measuring employee attitudes: I. a one-question global rating II. a summation score made up of a number of job facets III. a 360? battery Which of these methods are the best to use i n order to measure job satisfaction? a. I only b. II only c. III only dI and II are equally as good e. II or III are equally as good20. The following statements are about the relationship between job satisfaction and customer satisfaction for frontline employees who have regular customer contact: I. employee satisfaction is positively correlated to customer satisfaction II. employee satisfaction has no correlation to customer satisfaction III. satisfied customers tend to raise employee satisfaction Which of these statements are true? a. I only b. II only c. III only d. I and III e. II and III21. Actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions, including suggesting improvements and discussing problems with superiors would be what type of response? a. exit b. voice c. loyalty d. neglect e. reification22. Quietly continuing to do your work when you know things won’t improve, is what type of response to dissatisfaction? a. exit b. oice c. loyalty d. neglect e. social voice23. Maria is dissatisfied with the way that her manager treats her. She has quit her job and found a new position with another firm. She has expressed her dissatisfaction through __________. a. exit b. voice c. loyalty d. neglect e. social voice24. Henry is dissatisfied with his job but believes that his supervisor is a good man who will do the right thing. Henry has decided that if he just waits, conditions will improve. Henry’s approach to this problem is termed ________. a. exit b. voice c. loyalty d. neglect e. reificationSCENARIO-BASED QUESTIONSMrs. Jonas believes strongly that it is important that worker’s rights be respected, and that one of the more important ways of doing this is to ensure that all workers be properly documented. She is supervising a contracting company that is building a new warehouse for her company. While doing this she discovers that many of the workers employed by the contractor are undocumented aliens working for well below minimum wage.25. Mrs. Jonas is likely experiencing _____. a. cognitive dissonance b. unresolved anger c. ethical evasion d. uncertainty avoidance e. social pressure 6. In this situation Mrs. Jonas has a/an _____ that is in conflict with a/an _____. a. behavior; behavior b. attitude; attitude c. social need; social interest d. social need; social need e. behavior; attitude27. Mrs. Jonas can be expected to relieve the discomfort she is experiencing by _____. a. deciding this issue is unimportant b. rationalizing that it is not her problem since she is not the contractor c. attempting to stop the contractor using undocumented workers d. coming to accept that using undocumented workers does not harm workers’ rights e. any of the aboveEmployees at Acme Express are dissatisfied with working conditions, salary, and the general attitude of management. Mark, Susan, and Toni are good friends who work at Acme, yet each seem to be reacting differently to the problems at work.28. Toni has decide d that she’ll just get a new job and get away from the problem. Toni is dealing with her dissatisfaction through _____. a. exit b. voice c. loyalty d. neglect e. acceptance29. Susan has composed a list of concerns along with her suggestions for improving conditions. Susan is dealing with her dissatisfaction through ________. a. exit b. voice c. oyalty d. neglect e. acceptance30. Mark believes that his manager is a good person and will work things out if Mark just gives him time to do so. Mark is dealing with his dissatisfaction through _____. a. exit b. voice c. loyalty d. neglect e. acceptanceDESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS1. Explain the concept of job satisfaction and discuss how job satisfaction can impact employee productivity, absenteeism and turnover.1. Discuss Cognitive dissonance and Self – Perception Theories and examine their significance in understanding relationship between Attitude and Behavior ( A – B Relationship) ___________________ Challenges and Opportunities for Ob International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities Vol. 3, No. 2 (2012), pp. 139-147 www. irssh. com ISSN 2248-9010 (Online), ISSN 2250-0715 (Print) The Constructivist Theory in Mathematics: The Case of Botswana Primary Schools Thenjiwe Emily Major (Corresponding Author) Department of Educational Foundations University of Botswana Private Bag- 00702, Gaborone Botswana- 00267 E-mail: [email  protected] ub. bw Boitumelo Mangope Department of Educational Foundations University of Botswana Private Bag- 00702, Gaborone Botswana- 00267 E-mail: [email  protected] ub. w (Received: 13-10-11 / Accepted: 12-4-12) Abstract This paper is based on a large research study that compared teacher quality and student performance in Southern Africa countries of Botswana and South Africa. In this paper we explore the extent to which the primary school teachers in Botswana use the constructivist approach in the teaching and learning of mathematics. Data was collected through classroom videotaping. Sixty out of the 64 mathematics teachers teaching at least one mathematics lesson, and more than one third of the teachers were videotaped twice.A total of 83 mathematics lessons were videotaped. The results of the study indicated that a large percentage of lessons observed required learners to simply recall rules, while a very small percentage of the lessons observed required learners to investigate or explore relationships between mathematical ideas. Keywords: Constructivism, mathematics, active learning, Botswana, passive learning. Introduction Constructivism is a learning theory describing the process of knowledge construction.Knowledge construction is an active, rather than a passive process. Constructivists believe that knowledge should not be just deposited into the learners’ minds; instead it should be constructed by the learners through active involvement in the learning process. Hausfather (2001) noted that, Constructivism is not a method. It is a theory of knowledg e and learning that should inform practice but not prescribe practice. By its very nature, constructivism emphasizes the Thenjiwe Emily Major et al. 140 mportance of the teaching context, student prior knowledge, and active interaction between the learner and the content to be learned. (p. 18). In the constructivist perspective, knowledge is constructed by the individual through his/her interactions with the environment. Unlike the traditional mode of learning whereby the teacher plays an active role in the teaching/learning environment, and learners passively receive the content, constructivists believe the learning should be centered on the learner.This has been acknowledged by Simon (1995) that â€Å"we construct our knowledge of our world from our perceptions and experiences, which are themselves mediated through our previous knowledge† (p. 115). When teachers believe that learners are empty vessels to be filled with the information from the authority, then teacher domina tion will always exist in the teaching learning environment. According to Freire (1970) the domination of the teacher is referred to as the ‘banking concept’ education.The banking concept sees the teacher as the only source of information. It is important that teachers should actively involve learners in their teaching to enable the students to construct knowledge. According to the Educational Broadcasting Corporation (2004) â€Å" in the classroom teaching, constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of different teaching practices†¦it means encouraging students to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving)† (p. 1).Kennedy (1997) also noted that â€Å"what students learn is greatly influenced by how they are taught† (p. 2). Mathematics by nature is a subject that requires learners to be fully engaged in order for learning to take place. Therefore, this paper explores the extent to which learners were given the oppo rtunity to construct their own knowledge in the mathematics lessons. Statement of the Problem Botswana students need to learn mathematics differently than the current practices employed. Research has revealed that most teachers in Botswana end to present mathematics knowledge to the learners to swallow and regurgitate when needed, and not with the aim of helping them to develop independent skills to construct their own mathematics knowledge (The Report on the process of learning in Botswana: An in-depth study of the quality of mathematics teaching in sixth grade classrooms and its effect on learner achievement, 2011). Teachers have also been discovered to have insufficient skills to present maths skills to learners (The Report on the process of learning in Botswana, 2011).Teachers, therefore, must change their instructional techniques for learners to be actively engaged in their own learning and not passive recipients. Learners must learn to communicate and think mathematically. For future educational growth, , Botswana needs learners who are creative, analytic, problem solvers. Such skills can be promoted at the school level through the constructivist approach. Review of Literature Constructivism The constructivist theory to teaching and learning has been broadly addressed in a number of researches in mathematics education (Katic, Hmelo-Silver & Weber, 2009; Steele, 1995).According to this theory, students do not just passively receive information but constantly create new knowledge based on prior knowledge in conjunction with new experiences. As opposed to the traditional approaches where students learn by copying â€Å"word for word† what teachers say, constructivism has shifted to a more radical conception of teaching and learning whereby learners’ fresh ideas are brought to class, acknowledged, and enhanced through a variety of teaching and learning techniques that actively engage them.A number of studies have shown the effectiveness of the constructivist approach in teaching and learning in contrast to the traditional drilling and reciting approach (Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn, 2007; Steele, 1995). A study by Steele, (1995) on â€Å"A construct visit Approach to mathematics teaching and learning†¦.. † revealed that using constructivist International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2012), 139-147 141 learning strategies has positive gains. For example, such strategies tend to create an exciting environment for students to learn mathematics and enhance their self-esteem.According to this study, when students learn to construct their own knowledge, they tend to have control of mathematical concepts and think mathematically. Another study by Katic, Hmelo-Silver & Weber, (2009) on Material Mediation, suggest that materials can help to motivate and mediate the participants’ collaborative problem solving discussions. In this study, Katic, et al. , teachers used a variety of resou rces to solve a mathematics problem and construct explanations about the learning process; they, then, posed questions about the problem to clarify their solutions.This is a method that is encouraged in social theories like constructivism, as it generally assists in keeping the learners on task. Although constructivist learning theory does not tell us how to teach mathematics, a teacher with a constructivist background can facilitate learners’ construction of knowledge by applying different constructivist teaching approaches that are in aligned with this learning theory. This type of mathematics teaching forms the basis of this study.Nevertheless, a number of studies in Botswana on teacher centered versus learner centered approaches have revealed that teacher centered approaches are dominant in Botswana classrooms (Prophet, Rowell, 1993; Republic of Botswana, 1993; Tabulawa, 1997, 1998). For example a study By Tabulawa, (1997), on Pedagogical Classroom Practice†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ has indicated that students in the classrooms have been shown to be passive recipients of knowledge, which means that they are not given the opportunity to construct their own knowledge.The commission on Education (1977) has also highlighted this as a major concern in the education system of Botswana. According to this policy, teachers have a tendency to dominate in the classroom as most of the information transmitted to students is often too abstract and mostly requires them to memorize. This policy in a way was calling for a radical change in the classroom practices to allow for students’ growth through teaching and learning that is learner driven.Tabulawa, (1998) has also indicated a concern on the perceptions that teachers have that influence their classroom practices. In addition, Tabulawa, noted that there are certain factors that influence teachers to be dominant in the classrooms such as â€Å"teachers’ assumptions about the nature of knowledge and the ways it ought to be transmitted and the perceptions of students†. These factors are worrisome as they tend to perpetuate teacher centered approaches as opposed to learner centered practices.The study is out to find out the extent to which teachers apply the constructivist theory of teaching and learning when teaching mathematics. This is a theory that has been proven beyond reasonable doubt to enhance students’ independent learning. Methodology Sampling To address the objective of the study, the researcher used data from Human Research Science Council (HRSC) -Stanford- University of Botswana Regional Education Study that was conducted in 2009/10 as a comparative study on teacher quality and student performance in Botswana and South Africa.Out of 60 sampled schools in Botswana, data was obtained from 58 schools and 64 classrooms (two math classrooms in six of the schools taught by the same teacher in each school). The sample focused on 5 districts in Botswana, namely; low-incom e schools in five districts within 50 kilometers of the South African border, Gaborone (18 schools, 617 students), Kgatleng (16 schools, 495 students), Lobatse (6 schools, 152 students), South East (10 schools, 305 students), and Southern (8 schools, 205 students). InstrumentationData was collected through videotaping 83 standard six mathematics teachers teaching at least one mathematics lesson. More than one-third of the teachers were videotaped twice. The filming was done at the middle and towards the end of the year by trained personnel of the Thenjiwe Emily Major et al. 142 Botswana team from the University of Botswana. Teachers whose classes were videotaped were informed in advance about the research team visits. They were further told that the videos will only be used for the study. Data AnalysisThe videotape analysis was also done by well trained personnel from the University of Botswana and the U. S. A. From various video analyses conducted, the levels of cognitive demand we re selected based on the relevance of this paper since the focus was on the thinking process in which the learner was engaged. The ‘level(s) of cognitive demand’ in which learners were engaged in during the lesson were derived from a rubric in Stein et al. ’s (2000) classification of higher and lower cognitive demand. These are: Lower Level Demand 1.Memorization: Memorization recollection of facts, formulae, or definitions 2. Task requires the recall of previously learned material. Or the committing of facts, formulas or definitions to memory. Task cannot be solved using procedures because procedures do not exist or the time frame in which task is to be completed is too short to use a procedure. Tasks involve exact reproduction of previously seen material and what is reproduced is clearly and directly stated. Task has no connection to concept or meaning that underlies the facts, rules, formula, or definition being learned or reproduced.Processes without Connectio ns: Performing algorithmic type of problems and have no connection to the underlying concept or meaning Task is algorithmic. Use of procedures either is specifically stated or its use is evident based on prior instruction, experience, or placement of task. Task leaves little ambiguity about what needs to be done and how to do it. No connection or explanation of the concept is needed. Task focuses on producing correct answers rather than developing mathematical understanding. Higher Level Demand 3.Processes with Connections: Use of procedures with the purpose of developing deeper levels of understanding concepts or ideas Task requires use of procedures to develop deeper understanding of the concept. Task suggests pathways to follow that are broad general procedures rather than algorithms that are opaque with respect to underlying concepts. Tasks are usually represented in multiple ways (e. g. visual diagrams, manipulatives, symbols, problem situations) Connections among the represent ations builds meaning to concept. Tasks require some thinking, although using a procedure t cannot be followed mindlessly. Students need to engage in conceptual ideas to successfully complete the task. Doing Concepts and Processes: Doing mathematics complex and non-algorithmic thinking, students explore and investigate the nature of the concepts and relationships Task requires access of relevant knowledge, self-reflection on actions, exploring concepts, processes and relationships in non-algorithmic activity. Task demands self-monitoring or self-regulation of thinking. – 4. – International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2012 139-147 (2012), 147 143 –Task requires analysis of constraints that may limit possible solution strategies and solutions. Task is unpredictable due to nature of solution process required. The focus in this component (the levels of cognitive demand) is the thinking processes in cognitive which learners engage in the observed lessons. In a constructivist classroom, learners are expected to think at a very high level, – as they are actively involved in their own learning. Apart from the analysis of the levels of cognitive demand, the data analysis members also s made some observations on how students interacted with the teacher.They made notes on these observations. Findings Levels of cognitive demand in classroom teaching in a sample of Botswana School 90 80 70 Percent of Lessons 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Memorization Procedures without connections Procedures with connections Doing mathematics The findings of the study indicated that 7. 3. 5% of the lessons required learners to recall a fact which in fact is memorization, 85% of the lessons do procedures without connections, and 23% do procedures with connections and only 3% students explore and investigate the nature of the concepts and relationships.From the video note observations, the data indicates that in most lessons teachers asked the s tudents questions and allowed the whole class to call out the answers. These findings concur with Arthur’s (1998), that â€Å"I observed many teacher dominated classroom procedures, in teacher-dominated particular lengthy recitations of questions by teacher and answers by individual or whole class† (p. 314). When teachers are the only ones asking questions and students being the s† respondents, learning is no longer centered on the learner but more on the teacher.Discussions From the findings it is evident that teachers used the procedural teaching and students learned by memorizing facts. When learners do the rote learning they are not encouraged to think critically and to construct their own knowledge as the teacher is the one who provides the one content for them. Memorization in Botswana classrooms is very common as evidenced by previous researchers such as Fuller and Snyder (1991), Arthur (1998), Tabulawa (2004, 1998, Thenjiwe Emily Major et al. 144 and 1997 ).Arthur and Martin (2006) in their study on comparative classroom teaching and learning found that most teachers in Botswana â€Å"ask low-level factual questions, with few opportunities for pupils†¦learners do not exercise their reasoning powers or imaginations† (p. 195). As data has indicated that lessons were predominately recalling of facts and procedures without any application to real life situations, one may assume that learners were not constructing their own knowledge but were simply spoon-fed by teachers. The National Commission on Education of Botswana (1977) also oncurs with this study that learning is mostly memorizing and recalling of facts which, in a way, does not add any value to the learning process. One of the goals of vision 2016 is for the education system of Botswana to provide quality education that would enable Batswana to adapt to the changing needs of the country as well as the global changes. This vision goal can be achieved if teachers adapt to theories such as constructivism that allow learners to explore and come up with their own solutions to the problems.Memorization and imitating teachers will not give Botswana learners sufficient wisdom to survive independently in this world of socio-political and economic unrest. From the data, one concludes that learners were not given tasks that challenged their thinking and the construction of their own knowledge. Henningsen and Stein (1997) noted that Mathematical tasks are central to students' learning because â€Å"tasks convey messages about what mathematics is and what doing mathematics entails†(NCTM, 1 991, p. 24). The tasks in which students engage provide the contexts in which they learn to think about subject students. p. 525) matter, and different tasks may place differing cognitive demands on Indeed if learners are given tasks that encourage memorization of ideas, according to Stein et al. ’s (2000) levels of cognitive demands, the learners are at the lowest level. In this level students are given formulas to memorize and just follow procedures without making any connections to real life situations. For example, in one of the videos the teacher was teaching the topic â€Å"area†. This is how she taught the lesson; first she asked the learners the meaning of the word area.Learners could not define the word, and instead of the teacher defining it, she gave the learners the formula for solving the area of a square. She then drew some shapes on the board, solved one as an example and then asked the learners to use the formula to find areas of the rest shapes. Indeed using the formula given, most learners were able to find the areas of the shapes drawn by their teacher. But can the learners apply the idea to real life? The procedure may be correct. However, did the learners make any connections to real life?From the analysis of the data it is evident that most tasks given to the learners only concentrated on the low levels of c ognitive demand. The task focused on producing correct answers rather than developing mathematical understanding. Various reasons such as examination driven curriculum may have contributed to Botswana teachers delivering facts (giving lower level tasks) to learners rather than allowing learners to think and construct their own knowledge. The centralized curriculum as well as examinations does contribute to teacher-domination as teachers are more concerned with completion of the syllabus at a given period.Arthur and Martin (2006) acknowledged that â€Å"pupils examination success provides access to further education in Botswana† (p. 192) forcing teachers to rush through the syllabus. This has also been confirmed by Tabulawa, (1998), that teachers’ perceptions of students and the goals of schooling have a direct influence in the way teachers teach because teachers see themselves as the main transmitters of knowledge, while students are passive recipients who must memoriz e and produce during examinations.Another reason may be the large numbers of teacher to students’ ratio which then encourages delivering of facts rather than allowing learners to construct their own knowledge. In a constructivist learning environment, learners learn best by discovering their own knowledge. Teachers encourage higher – level thinking so that students can reach beyond the simple factual response. Moreover, in a constructivist classroom, learners are encouraged to summarize concepts by analyzing, predicting, justifying, and defending their ideas.Cobb (1999) noted that â€Å"constructivist learning theory predicts that knowledge encoded from data by learners themselves will be more flexible, transferable, and useful than knowledge encoded for them by experts and transmitted to them by an instructor or other delivery agent† (p. 15). International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2012), 139-147 145 In constructivism knowledge co nstruction is emphasized rather than knowledge reproduction. Knowledge construction helps the learners to remember what they have learned.The second highest level of cognitive demand encourages ‘use of procedures with the purpose of developing deeper levels of understanding concepts or ideas’. For learners to master the content, constructivist believe that higher order thinking skills and deeper understanding should be emphasized in the learning environment. Learners develop into critical thinkers if they are actively involved in the learning process and are encouraged to apply the concepts to real life situation. By this, learners are making meaningful connections.Learners can use their experiences to construct new information if given the opportunity to practice in the teaching/learning environment rather than having facts poured into them by the one in authority. The role of the teacher is to serve as a facilitator. The highest level of cognitive demand calls for doi ng mathematics complex and nonalgorithmic thinking, students explore and investigate the nature of the concepts and relationships. Tasks that learners are supposed to be engaged in should help them explore the relationship between concepts they are learning and reality.For, example, if learners are doing ‘area’ as a topic of study, let them explore the idea and find out how the topic can be applied in real life situations. Teachers should provide tasks that will lead the learners to explore, discover, and apply the concepts. Richard cited by Simon (1995) noted that It is necessary [for t he mathematics teacher] to provide a structure and a set of plans that support the development of informed exploration and reflective inquiry without taking initiative or control away from the student. The teacher must design tasks and projects that stimulate student to ask questions pose, problems, and set goals.Students will not become active learners by accident but by design through the use of the plans that we structure to guide exploration and inquiry. (118) It is, therefore, the responsibility of every teacher to plan activities that require high level of cognitive demand. It is important to note that high levels of cognitive demand require students to use their prior knowledge as advocated by the constructivists. Henningsen and Stein (1997) contended that â€Å"connections with what students already know and understand also play an important role in engaging students in high-level thought processes† (p. 27). For students to perform tasks that require critical thinking and applying of concepts, experience or prior knowledge used as a base is crucial. The findings in this study indicate that teachers did not engage the learners on tasks that required them to use higher levels of cognitive demand. These findings concur with what Prophet and Rowell cited by Fuller and Snyder (1991) that teachers in Botswana classrooms â€Å"ask for factual information through sentence completion exercise with pupils individual or in chorus simply adding the missing word.Students are rarely asked to explain the process or the interrelation between two or more event† (p. 276). This is a clear indication that teachers in Botswana classroom give learners tasks that are mostly associated with the low level of cognitive demand of which the constructivist theory does not encourage. The theory of constructivism also values the uniqueness of every learner. Students learn differently. The teacher, as the facilitator, should appreciate every learner’s strengths and weaknesses. Each learner should be given the opportunity to construct knowledge from his/her own experiences.Summary DeVries, Zan, Hildebrandt, Edmiaston, and Sales ( 2002) asserted that â€Å"teacherswho have been accustomed to teaching by telling and directing children’s work must shift from seeing themselves as central in producing learning to seeing thechild as centralâ⠂¬ (p. 36). From the study one concluded that there was a lot of spoon-feeding in most classes. Students were not given tasks that encouraged them to be doers and thinkers of mathematics, but rather to be consumers of mathematics concepts. Knowledge construction was very limited in most classes making learning more teacher-centered.Thenjiwe Emily Major et al. 146 The continued teacher domination in the Botswana teaching/learning environment will result in learners who cannot think deeply and critically. Knowledge is not passively received, but actively built up by the learners. 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