How to Translate the French Expression De Rien

How to Translate the French Expression 'De Rien' The French phrase  de rien  (pronounced deu-r yeh) is one that many students  learn to translate as youre welcome. But this common expression of courtesy actually means something slightly different. Its not considered improper or impolite to use  de rien  when someone thanks you, but there are other words that may be more appropriate. Usage The closest English equivalent to de rien is its nothing, which is not the nicest way to acknowledge gratitude. De rien isnt wrong, exactly, but its not as polite as what native French speakers typically say: je vous en prie you are welcome (literally, I beg of you)je ten prie youre welcome (to a friend)cest moi qui vous remercie (or just cest moi) no, thank you (literally, it is I who thanks you)merci vous / toi thank you (literally, (my) thanks to you)pas de quoi, il ny a pas de quoi (informal) dont mention it (literally, no need, theres is no need)avec plaisir (South of France) my pleasure (literally, with pleasure) Example Merci, jai beaucoup aimà © ce livre. Thank you, I really liked this book​ De rien!   Youre welcome!

Research various techniques such as lighting, sound, shot types etc, used by directors in their films Essays

Research various techniques such as lighting, sound, shot types etc, used by directors in their films Essays Research various techniques such as lighting, sound, shot types etc, used by directors in their films Essay Research various techniques such as lighting, sound, shot types etc, used by directors in their films Essay The aim of my illustrated essay is to research various techniques such as lighting, sound, shot types etc, used by directors in their films. From this research I wish to discover what has influenced the directors and how they have used the various techniques to portray a sense of empathy, tension and suspense in particular scenes throughout their films. I aim to I gain inspiration for my own film by doing this and be able to apply my findings to one of my experimental pieces and my short film. In mainstream and experimental filming/cinema performance details create and keep up a directors overall vision. Depending on what the director wishes to achieve, they will talk with the actors and discuss how the actors should behave on set. The actor may be told to use limited or controlled movements to portray a character that is worried or on edge about something, while another works in contrast to them using light and free-floating movements to portray a character that is open to experience. Sudden and abrupt bursts of words can be used to show that a character is alarmed or perhaps even annoyed about something, whilst a smooth, sustained, smooth vocal rhythm can be used to show that the character is relaxed and at ease. Nearer to the beginning of my film, I will be instructing my actors to use a smooth vocal rhythm as I intend for them to appear relaxed and happy at the beginning. However, nearing the end of my film, I will hopefully be able to create a sense of frustration or anxiety by having my actors use sudden bursts of words followed by short periods of silence, hopefully portraying the feeling of suspense, tension and awkwardness between the two characters. In mainstream and experimental cinema, dramatic and comedic narratives, a films presentation of performance will also reflect the directors stylistic vision. Films present performances in different ways because different directors make different uses of actors expressivity, which is the degree to which actors do or do not project characters experiences. Presentation of performance differs from film to film as directors make different uses of cinematic expressivity, or the degree to which other cinematic elements enhance or somehow mediate and modify access to actors performances. Working in different periods, aesthetic movements, and production regimes, directors have presented performances in markedly different ways. Sensible directors use manipulative emotions as an important tool to convey the right impact. Richard Attenboroughs Gandhi is one of the classic examples of using manipulative emotions to your advantage. Mel Gibsons The Passion of The Christ is another example of this, but to say it is a highly manipulative film would be an understatement. On The Passion of The Christ, MS Sathyu the director of Garam Hawa one of the very first films on partition said We all know Jesus was beaten black and blue before he was Crucified, but do we have to see all the 50-100 times he was whipped to feel the pain. This is exactly what Mel Gibson did in The Passion of The Christ, and it proved very successful for him, so maybe people do like to view things in detail. In my film however, I will not be paying as much attention to detail as Mel Gibson in this particular film. As my film is only three to six minutes long I must be straight to the point. At one end of the spectrum, directors use performance elements as pieces of the films audiovisual design. In these films, actors often hold in their emotion, and the films non-performance elements i.e. cinematography, become especially important. This approach to presenting performances is found in many modernist films, which often use framing, editing, and sound to prevent identification with characters. Baz Luhrmanns work with production designer Catherine Martin on Romeo ; Juliet (1996) resulted in a film in which actors physical signs of heightened emotion are shown in tight framings which come together as parts of a wider picture that is packed with outstanding costumes, frantic camera movements, and dizzying editing patterns. I wish to adapt some of these editing editing patterns into my film, which will hopefully be achieved through the use an effect in Final Cut named blur. Like other post-modern films from around the world, the performances in Romeo ; Juliet are sometimes extremely short and minimalist, and at other times highly exaggerated and extremely dramatic. As if mirroring current television and new media experiences, the framing, editing, and sound techniques in Luhrmanns Romeo Juliet sometimes block access to characters experiences; at other times the films non-performance elements enhance identification with characters by exaggerating the magnitude of their personal experiences. Due to my actors lack of experience and knowledge of techniques, non-performance elements will play a key role in the making of my film. For inspiration I have analysed the scene in Romeo Juliet in which the pair commit the act of suicide through the use of poison. Luhrmanns climactic death scene features only romeo and juliet, whereas Shakespeares play also includes Friar Laurence and the slain bodies of Paris and Tybalt. The inclusion of only the two lovers focuses the conflict on the tragic failure of their happiness and love. From the beginning of Romeos monologue in this scene to the end the shots are all close-ups of Romeo and Juliet. CUs are often used as cutaways from a more distant shot in order to show details such as characters emotions as it is used in this particular scene in Romeo ; Juliet. In closer analysis we see that their two faces are always in the same frame until Juliet awakens. The background setting of the scene is luxuriant, as the viewer sees when Romeo makes his entrance, but it is not included in the scene once he has approached Juliet. By excluding all other detailing from the shot further emphasizes the single theme here which is the sadness felt by these two young lovers. The theme here is not thoughtlessness of these youths or the clashing of social groups, instead it is the failure of a romance in the face of social disorder. Therefore, in the climax of my short film, I will exclude all other detailing from the frame in an attempt to emphasise my characters emotions.

Personal impression of English class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Personal impression of English class - Essay Example When I write, I know I'm leaving a permanent record of my thoughts and visions. I will be judged by the readers who share my writing and it's important to me to be perceived as a competent writer. It gives me a sense of pride and a feeling that I have created a worthwhile essay. The hours spent formulating the idea, outlining, and drafting is hours well spent when I get a feeling of accomplishment at the successful completion of an essay assignment. I especially enjoy the ability to paint a picture, complete with sights and sounds, using only the printed word. One of my favorite descriptions came from an essay I wrote titled "Ocean City: The Best Place to Be!": Ocean City has street parties that clean away the restlessness and replaces it with laughter. Cozy, Old World cafes touched with that European flavor give diners a feeling of sophistication and class; and spontaneous dancing venues with swirling lights, swimsuit-clad bodies, and reggae and salsa music encourage relaxation, cel ebration, and fun. This description of Ocean City gives a feeling of being in the middle of the activity and spending a carefree day with the crowds. It invokes sight, sounds, colors, and smells, I very much enjoyed writing it as I imagined myself at the beach. I have learned that visualizing the setting, the people, and the situation aids me in the ability to describe it. Another skill I have acquired that adds quality to my essays is knowing when not to write too much and conclude the essay with an appropriate closing.

Global Changes and Developing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Global Changes and Developing - Assignment Example National, organizational and group cultures are greatly influenced by the leadership styles that exist in each culture. For example, the management style, vision and the personality of a leader greatly affect the behaviour and performance of the people under him or her. In addition, the tradition and the history of the country, organization or the group affect the performance of the individuals in that nation, group or organization. For example, if the forefathers of a given nation strived and hard worked and managed to achieve their desired goals as independence, then the citizens of that nation would automatically develop a culture of hardworking and striving in order to achieve their goals. Moreover, the set goals, beliefs, symbols and values of a given nation, organization or group influence their corresponding cultures. For example, the symbols in the national flag, organization or group dictate much about the goals, vision and mission of that state or organization (Schriesheim & Neider 2006). Consequently, there are many instances where national, organization and group culture conflict in one way of the other. In most cases, conflicts arise when one culture interferes with the culture of the other group, nation or organization. However, the existence of cultures helps in shaping the behaviours of individuals and their performance (Schriesheim & Neider 2006). It is, therefore, evident that, culture is an integral aspect in structuring the expected dos and donts of individuals in an organization or group. Moreover, each organization or group should respect the culture of each other to ensure peaceful

Nepal Essay Essay Example for Free

Nepal Essay Essay Introduction I am doing my report on a country by the name of Nepal. The formal name is The Kingdom of Nepal. The term for citizens is Nepalese. The capital of Nepal is Katmandu. Nepal became independent in 1768 when a number of independent hill states were unified by Prithri Narayan Shah as the Kingdom of Gorkha. The area of Nepal is 56,827 square miles. Its population according to the 1991 census was 18,462, 081. Nepal is located between China and India. Population The most recent information about Nepals population is in the year of 1994. It was an estimate of about 20,000,000. At this time the average family was made up of 5.9 persons, and the life expectancy was about 50 years. About 70 percent of the total population was of working age, or between the ages of fifteen and fifty-nine years of age. Nearly 44 percent of the population is in the Terai Region, 48 percent in the Mountain Region. In 1981 the capital, Katmandu , had a population of 235,160. Government Nepal has a constitutional monarchy government. The multiparty democracy established along with the November 1990 constitution which replaced the panchayat system. Education The education system has expanded rapidly since 1951. Right now there are elementary and high schools found in most areas of the country. Tribharan University was established in 1961 to serve as the hub of a higher education system. The literacy rate is still only an estimated fifteen percent, with most of the literate population concentrated in Katmandu Valley and in the Terai. Language In Nepal there are numerous languages spoken which is a problem because they do not belong to the same family group. The most common and national language , Nepali, stems form the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo European family. Nepali is spoken by 60 percent of the population. A second category of languages in Nepal is the Tibeto- Burman languages, of which the most common are Newer, Magarkura, Gurangkura, Karin and Limbuani. Religion and Society Religion occupies an integral position in Nepalese life and society. The main religion in Nepal is Hinduism , but much of the population follows an unorthodox Buddhism strongly affected by mixtures of Hinduism. The fact that Hindus worship in Buddhist temples and Buddhists worship in Hindus temples has been one of the main reasons followers of the two dominate groups in Nepal have never engaged in any conflicts. Because of such dual faith practices the differences between Hindus and Buddhists have been generally in nature. In 1991 about 89.5 percent of the Nepalese people indenified themselves as Hindus. Buddhists and Muslims occupied only 5.3 and 2.7 percent. The remainder religion is Christianity. At least 87 percent of the population in every region is made of Hindus. Buddhists are mostly found in the Eastern Hills, the Katmandu Valley, and the Central Terai, in each area about 10 percent of the people were Buddhist. Terai The Terai region of Nepal is a low, fertile alluvial plain, in effect the northern extrusion of the Ganges plain. It is 20 miles wide at its broadest point and extends over most of the southern edge. North of this, bordering the forests of the Bhabar and Chria Hills, the Terai is marshy and malaria is endemic. A green belt of excellent timber parallels or dense elephant grass growing to a height of 15 feet. Climate The climate is moderate only in the mountain valleys, about 5,000 feet above sea level. The rest of Nepal is either extremely hot, as in the Terai, climate changes sharply with elevation. In the Himalayas, exposure to the sun and to rain-bearing winds produce complex patterns of local climates. Average temperatures in the Katmandu Valley range form 50 degrees in January to 78 degrees in July. Rainfall mainly  occurs between June and September. The dry season is November to January. Agriculture About 90 percent of Nepals working force is directly engaged in agricultural pursuits. Arable land is at 30 percent of the total land area, of which 60 percent is classified as suitable for wet cultivation and 30 percent for dry cultivation. The main crops are rice, corn, millet, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, fruits, and vegetables. Rice is grown in the Teria, Katmandu Valley , and the lower hill area. Corn and millet are the main crops at higher altitudes , which is about 6,000 feet above sea level. Annual Rainfall Fire climate zones based on altitude range from subtropical in the South, to cool summers and severe winters in the North. The annual rainfall depends on a monsoon cycle which provides 60 to 80 percent of the total rainfall. The Eastern part of the country get the most with 2,500 millimeters. The Katmandu averages around 1,420 millimeters. And Western Nepal gets around 1,000 millimeters. Himalayans The Himalayans are what Nepal is known for. The Himalayans were formed about 60 million years ago, When the earths continents were still forming, a part of east Africa broke loose and began to driff slowly northward. When it rammed into Asia , the force of the collision caused the land to crumple up into a vast mountain range. More than 1,000 miles long and hundreds of miles wide. This system contains some of the highest mountains in the world. The most famous of these is Mount Everest. Bibliography Norton, Peter B., and Joseph J. Esposito. Nepal.  Encyclopedia Britanica. 1995. Boehm, Richard G. World Geography. Westerville: The McGraw-Hill. 1997.

Hitlers Rise To Power :: essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The name Hitler stirs up many emotions inside the hearts of people. What could have made Hitler so hostile towards the Jews? Could it have been his unhappy childhood, frustrated adolecsnce, his artistic disappointment, rejection from the Jewish society or merely the wound he received on the front during World War I. Adolf Hitler or the incarnation of absolute evil became dictator of Germany in 1933 and prepared his nation for war and a â€Å"Final Solution† to the â€Å"Jewish problem†. Hitler posed a great threat to democracy and redefined the meaning of evil for eternity. Hitler’s undeniable hatred for Jews crushed his dream of a â€Å"third Reich† and only created more anguish, and enmity among the people of Germany.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  World War I was a great disparagement to the German people. Despair increased as the army returned to a bankrupt country. Millions of Germans could not find work, and a weak republic had replaced the defeated Germany. The German people were humiliated and full of distress. They were looking for many ways to restore their dignity and pride, but little did they know that things would get much worse. â€Å"The rain of inflation fell on the just and the unjust alike†(Flood 313) By 1923, Germany was facing deep troubles. There was major inflation and the majority of the population was poverty stricken. Problems were beginning to escalate while Germany was in a dismal economic state, shops were closing and, no 1   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  profits in production resulted in vast unemployment. Hungry and miserable the people turned to Hitler. He was a skillful schemer, politician, and organizer. This was Hitler's opportunity to preach amongst the German people. Hitler preached German superiority, more precisely to the Aryan race. Since the country was in total and complete chaos after the war, and was forced to pay billions of dollars in reparations, the German people saw some sort of hope in Hitler. Germany lost a large amount of its territory. The Empire was no more. â€Å"Hitler saw an opportunity and moved to grasp it† (Alexandria 75). When he took power the economy was basically non existent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hitler did not believe in total truth, instead he relied on halve truths, and big lies. For example he believed that the Jews were a sub -human race, that should be treated terribly and be completely disposed of. The German Workers' Party appealed to Hitler even though they were small, disorganized, and led by a group of misfits.

Challenges and Opportunities for Ob

ORB PQ Chapter 3 : Attitudes and Job Satisfaction1. Which of the following answer choices is the best definition of attitude? a. Attitudes indicate how one will react to a given event. b. Attitudes are the yardstick by which one measures one’s actions. c. Attitudes are the emotional part of an evaluation of some person, object or event. d. Attitudes are evaluative statements concerning objects, people or events e. Attitudes are a measure of how the worth of an object, person or event is evaluated. 2. The belief that â€Å"violence is wrong† is a evaluative statement. Such an opinion constitutes the component of an attitude. . cognitive b. affective c. reflective d. behavioral e. reactive 3. The _____ component of an attitude is the emotional or feeling component of that attitude. a. affective b. cognitive c. behavioral d. evaluative e. reaffective 4. The following are possible actions that an individual may take if they behave in a way that is inconsistent with an attitude that they hold: I: change the behavior II: change the attitude III: rationalize the behavior IV: ignore the inconstancy Which of these actions are the most likely to be taken? a. Either I, or II b. Either III or IV c. One of I, II or III . One of I, III or IV e. One of II, III or IV 5. Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes results in _____. a. organizational dissonance b. cognitive dissonance c. attitudinal clarification d. values clarification e. affective reactance 6. The theory of cognitive dissonance was proposed by ______________. a. Maslow b. Festinger c. Hofstede d. Skinner e. Pavlov 7. â€Å"Dissonance† means ______________. a. reactance b. constance c. resistance d. consistency e. inconsistency 8. According to Festinger, people will seek a(an) ________________________. a. ariable state with variable dissonance b. stable state with maximal dissonance c. unstable state with maximal dissonance d. unstable state with minimal dissonance e. stable state with minimal dissonance 9. Festinger proposed that the desire to reduce dissonance is determined by three factors including the_________________. a. values of the elements creating the dissonance b. degree of influence the individual believes he or she has over the elements c. degree of positive affect the person has toward the behavior d. fact that values and attitudes will vary over the short term e. wareness that dissonance exists 10. The primary organizational implication of cognitive dissonance theory is that it helps to predict _____. a. overall job satisfaction for employees b. the likelihood of a given employee engaging in impression management c. the overall level to which the workforce will accept gender, racial or other types of bias d. the willingness of the workforce to accept company rules and work practices e. the propensity to engage in attitude and behavioral change of the workforce 11. Which of the following is not a moderating variable of the A-B relationship? . direct experience b. consistency c. specificity d. accessibility e. importance 12. The theory that attitudes are used, after the fact, to make sense out of action that has already occurred is best explained by ______________. a. cognitive dissonance b. escalation of commitment c. self perception theory d. uncertainty avoidance e. organizational commitment 13. The E. M. Foster quote, â€Å"How can I know what I think ‘til I see what I say? † reflects the notions captured by ______________ theory. a. cognitive dissonance b. escalation of commitment c. self perception d. ncertainty avoidance e. social affirmation 14. The degree to which a person identifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her performance as being important to self-worth is _________________. a. job satisfaction b. job involvement c. job stability d. organizational commitment e. social embeddedness 15. ________________ can be defined as a positive feeling about one’s job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. a. Job satisfaction b. Job involvement c. Job stability d. Organizational commitment e. Social investment 16.In her work in the publishing industry, Vera seeks out new authors who she considers promising. In the past two years she has found a number of new writers whose work she thought was exceptional, and immersed herself in the task of helping them shape their manuscripts for submission to her managers for publishing. Although she was extremely proud of the results, none of the authors she worked with were chosen for publication. Vera believes that the decision not to publish these authors was based on personal rivalries within management, rather than the quality of her writers’ work.She is extremely frustrated, dreads coming into work each morning and is seriously thinking of resigning. How can Vera’s job attitudes best be described? a. low job satisfaction and low job involvement b. low job satisfaction and high job involvement c. high job satisfaction and low job involvement d. high job satisfaction and high job involvement e. low organizational commitment17. Organiza tional commitment is defined as ___________________________. a. the degree to which an employee identifies with the organization they work for and its goals b. n employee’s belief that the organization they work for will go to considerable lengths to ensure that its employees are treated fairly c. the degree to which an employee’s sense of fulfillment and self worth is related to their job d. the amount of effort an employee will make in order to keep or advance their position in an organization e. the degree to which an employee believes their work impacts their organization18. Of the following, the best predictor of turnover is ______________. a. job satisfaction b. job involvement c. organizational commitment d. cognitive dissonance e. ffective dissonance19. The following are methods of measuring employee attitudes: I. a one-question global rating II. a summation score made up of a number of job facets III. a 360? battery Which of these methods are the best to use i n order to measure job satisfaction? a. I only b. II only c. III only dI and II are equally as good e. II or III are equally as good20. The following statements are about the relationship between job satisfaction and customer satisfaction for frontline employees who have regular customer contact: I. employee satisfaction is positively correlated to customer satisfaction II. employee satisfaction has no correlation to customer satisfaction III. satisfied customers tend to raise employee satisfaction Which of these statements are true? a. I only b. II only c. III only d. I and III e. II and III21. Actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions, including suggesting improvements and discussing problems with superiors would be what type of response? a. exit b. voice c. loyalty d. neglect e. reification22. Quietly continuing to do your work when you know things won’t improve, is what type of response to dissatisfaction? a. exit b. oice c. loyalty d. neglect e. social voice23. Maria is dissatisfied with the way that her manager treats her. She has quit her job and found a new position with another firm. She has expressed her dissatisfaction through __________. a. exit b. voice c. loyalty d. neglect e. social voice24. Henry is dissatisfied with his job but believes that his supervisor is a good man who will do the right thing. Henry has decided that if he just waits, conditions will improve. Henry’s approach to this problem is termed ________. a. exit b. voice c. loyalty d. neglect e. reificationSCENARIO-BASED QUESTIONSMrs. Jonas believes strongly that it is important that worker’s rights be respected, and that one of the more important ways of doing this is to ensure that all workers be properly documented. She is supervising a contracting company that is building a new warehouse for her company. While doing this she discovers that many of the workers employed by the contractor are undocumented aliens working for well below minimum wage.25. Mrs. Jonas is likely experiencing _____. a. cognitive dissonance b. unresolved anger c. ethical evasion d. uncertainty avoidance e. social pressure 6. In this situation Mrs. Jonas has a/an _____ that is in conflict with a/an _____. a. behavior; behavior b. attitude; attitude c. social need; social interest d. social need; social need e. behavior; attitude27. Mrs. Jonas can be expected to relieve the discomfort she is experiencing by _____. a. deciding this issue is unimportant b. rationalizing that it is not her problem since she is not the contractor c. attempting to stop the contractor using undocumented workers d. coming to accept that using undocumented workers does not harm workers’ rights e. any of the aboveEmployees at Acme Express are dissatisfied with working conditions, salary, and the general attitude of management. Mark, Susan, and Toni are good friends who work at Acme, yet each seem to be reacting differently to the problems at work.28. Toni has decide d that she’ll just get a new job and get away from the problem. Toni is dealing with her dissatisfaction through _____. a. exit b. voice c. loyalty d. neglect e. acceptance29. Susan has composed a list of concerns along with her suggestions for improving conditions. Susan is dealing with her dissatisfaction through ________. a. exit b. voice c. oyalty d. neglect e. acceptance30. Mark believes that his manager is a good person and will work things out if Mark just gives him time to do so. Mark is dealing with his dissatisfaction through _____. a. exit b. voice c. loyalty d. neglect e. acceptanceDESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS1. Explain the concept of job satisfaction and discuss how job satisfaction can impact employee productivity, absenteeism and turnover.1. Discuss Cognitive dissonance and Self – Perception Theories and examine their significance in understanding relationship between Attitude and Behavior ( A – B Relationship) ___________________ Challenges and Opportunities for Ob International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities Vol. 3, No. 2 (2012), pp. 139-147 www. irssh. com ISSN 2248-9010 (Online), ISSN 2250-0715 (Print) The Constructivist Theory in Mathematics: The Case of Botswana Primary Schools Thenjiwe Emily Major (Corresponding Author) Department of Educational Foundations University of Botswana Private Bag- 00702, Gaborone Botswana- 00267 E-mail: [email  protected] ub. bw Boitumelo Mangope Department of Educational Foundations University of Botswana Private Bag- 00702, Gaborone Botswana- 00267 E-mail: [email  protected] ub. w (Received: 13-10-11 / Accepted: 12-4-12) Abstract This paper is based on a large research study that compared teacher quality and student performance in Southern Africa countries of Botswana and South Africa. In this paper we explore the extent to which the primary school teachers in Botswana use the constructivist approach in the teaching and learning of mathematics. Data was collected through classroom videotaping. Sixty out of the 64 mathematics teachers teaching at least one mathematics lesson, and more than one third of the teachers were videotaped twice.A total of 83 mathematics lessons were videotaped. The results of the study indicated that a large percentage of lessons observed required learners to simply recall rules, while a very small percentage of the lessons observed required learners to investigate or explore relationships between mathematical ideas. Keywords: Constructivism, mathematics, active learning, Botswana, passive learning. Introduction Constructivism is a learning theory describing the process of knowledge construction.Knowledge construction is an active, rather than a passive process. Constructivists believe that knowledge should not be just deposited into the learners’ minds; instead it should be constructed by the learners through active involvement in the learning process. Hausfather (2001) noted that, Constructivism is not a method. It is a theory of knowledg e and learning that should inform practice but not prescribe practice. By its very nature, constructivism emphasizes the Thenjiwe Emily Major et al. 140 mportance of the teaching context, student prior knowledge, and active interaction between the learner and the content to be learned. (p. 18). In the constructivist perspective, knowledge is constructed by the individual through his/her interactions with the environment. Unlike the traditional mode of learning whereby the teacher plays an active role in the teaching/learning environment, and learners passively receive the content, constructivists believe the learning should be centered on the learner.This has been acknowledged by Simon (1995) that â€Å"we construct our knowledge of our world from our perceptions and experiences, which are themselves mediated through our previous knowledge† (p. 115). When teachers believe that learners are empty vessels to be filled with the information from the authority, then teacher domina tion will always exist in the teaching learning environment. According to Freire (1970) the domination of the teacher is referred to as the ‘banking concept’ education.The banking concept sees the teacher as the only source of information. It is important that teachers should actively involve learners in their teaching to enable the students to construct knowledge. According to the Educational Broadcasting Corporation (2004) â€Å" in the classroom teaching, constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of different teaching practices†¦it means encouraging students to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving)† (p. 1).Kennedy (1997) also noted that â€Å"what students learn is greatly influenced by how they are taught† (p. 2). Mathematics by nature is a subject that requires learners to be fully engaged in order for learning to take place. Therefore, this paper explores the extent to which learners were given the oppo rtunity to construct their own knowledge in the mathematics lessons. Statement of the Problem Botswana students need to learn mathematics differently than the current practices employed. Research has revealed that most teachers in Botswana end to present mathematics knowledge to the learners to swallow and regurgitate when needed, and not with the aim of helping them to develop independent skills to construct their own mathematics knowledge (The Report on the process of learning in Botswana: An in-depth study of the quality of mathematics teaching in sixth grade classrooms and its effect on learner achievement, 2011). Teachers have also been discovered to have insufficient skills to present maths skills to learners (The Report on the process of learning in Botswana, 2011).Teachers, therefore, must change their instructional techniques for learners to be actively engaged in their own learning and not passive recipients. Learners must learn to communicate and think mathematically. For future educational growth, , Botswana needs learners who are creative, analytic, problem solvers. Such skills can be promoted at the school level through the constructivist approach. Review of Literature Constructivism The constructivist theory to teaching and learning has been broadly addressed in a number of researches in mathematics education (Katic, Hmelo-Silver & Weber, 2009; Steele, 1995).According to this theory, students do not just passively receive information but constantly create new knowledge based on prior knowledge in conjunction with new experiences. As opposed to the traditional approaches where students learn by copying â€Å"word for word† what teachers say, constructivism has shifted to a more radical conception of teaching and learning whereby learners’ fresh ideas are brought to class, acknowledged, and enhanced through a variety of teaching and learning techniques that actively engage them.A number of studies have shown the effectiveness of the constructivist approach in teaching and learning in contrast to the traditional drilling and reciting approach (Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn, 2007; Steele, 1995). A study by Steele, (1995) on â€Å"A construct visit Approach to mathematics teaching and learning†¦.. † revealed that using constructivist International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2012), 139-147 141 learning strategies has positive gains. For example, such strategies tend to create an exciting environment for students to learn mathematics and enhance their self-esteem.According to this study, when students learn to construct their own knowledge, they tend to have control of mathematical concepts and think mathematically. Another study by Katic, Hmelo-Silver & Weber, (2009) on Material Mediation, suggest that materials can help to motivate and mediate the participants’ collaborative problem solving discussions. In this study, Katic, et al. , teachers used a variety of resou rces to solve a mathematics problem and construct explanations about the learning process; they, then, posed questions about the problem to clarify their solutions.This is a method that is encouraged in social theories like constructivism, as it generally assists in keeping the learners on task. Although constructivist learning theory does not tell us how to teach mathematics, a teacher with a constructivist background can facilitate learners’ construction of knowledge by applying different constructivist teaching approaches that are in aligned with this learning theory. This type of mathematics teaching forms the basis of this study.Nevertheless, a number of studies in Botswana on teacher centered versus learner centered approaches have revealed that teacher centered approaches are dominant in Botswana classrooms (Prophet, Rowell, 1993; Republic of Botswana, 1993; Tabulawa, 1997, 1998). For example a study By Tabulawa, (1997), on Pedagogical Classroom Practice†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ has indicated that students in the classrooms have been shown to be passive recipients of knowledge, which means that they are not given the opportunity to construct their own knowledge.The commission on Education (1977) has also highlighted this as a major concern in the education system of Botswana. According to this policy, teachers have a tendency to dominate in the classroom as most of the information transmitted to students is often too abstract and mostly requires them to memorize. This policy in a way was calling for a radical change in the classroom practices to allow for students’ growth through teaching and learning that is learner driven.Tabulawa, (1998) has also indicated a concern on the perceptions that teachers have that influence their classroom practices. In addition, Tabulawa, noted that there are certain factors that influence teachers to be dominant in the classrooms such as â€Å"teachers’ assumptions about the nature of knowledge and the ways it ought to be transmitted and the perceptions of students†. These factors are worrisome as they tend to perpetuate teacher centered approaches as opposed to learner centered practices.The study is out to find out the extent to which teachers apply the constructivist theory of teaching and learning when teaching mathematics. This is a theory that has been proven beyond reasonable doubt to enhance students’ independent learning. Methodology Sampling To address the objective of the study, the researcher used data from Human Research Science Council (HRSC) -Stanford- University of Botswana Regional Education Study that was conducted in 2009/10 as a comparative study on teacher quality and student performance in Botswana and South Africa.Out of 60 sampled schools in Botswana, data was obtained from 58 schools and 64 classrooms (two math classrooms in six of the schools taught by the same teacher in each school). The sample focused on 5 districts in Botswana, namely; low-incom e schools in five districts within 50 kilometers of the South African border, Gaborone (18 schools, 617 students), Kgatleng (16 schools, 495 students), Lobatse (6 schools, 152 students), South East (10 schools, 305 students), and Southern (8 schools, 205 students). InstrumentationData was collected through videotaping 83 standard six mathematics teachers teaching at least one mathematics lesson. More than one-third of the teachers were videotaped twice. The filming was done at the middle and towards the end of the year by trained personnel of the Thenjiwe Emily Major et al. 142 Botswana team from the University of Botswana. Teachers whose classes were videotaped were informed in advance about the research team visits. They were further told that the videos will only be used for the study. Data AnalysisThe videotape analysis was also done by well trained personnel from the University of Botswana and the U. S. A. From various video analyses conducted, the levels of cognitive demand we re selected based on the relevance of this paper since the focus was on the thinking process in which the learner was engaged. The ‘level(s) of cognitive demand’ in which learners were engaged in during the lesson were derived from a rubric in Stein et al. ’s (2000) classification of higher and lower cognitive demand. These are: Lower Level Demand 1.Memorization: Memorization recollection of facts, formulae, or definitions 2. Task requires the recall of previously learned material. Or the committing of facts, formulas or definitions to memory. Task cannot be solved using procedures because procedures do not exist or the time frame in which task is to be completed is too short to use a procedure. Tasks involve exact reproduction of previously seen material and what is reproduced is clearly and directly stated. Task has no connection to concept or meaning that underlies the facts, rules, formula, or definition being learned or reproduced.Processes without Connectio ns: Performing algorithmic type of problems and have no connection to the underlying concept or meaning Task is algorithmic. Use of procedures either is specifically stated or its use is evident based on prior instruction, experience, or placement of task. Task leaves little ambiguity about what needs to be done and how to do it. No connection or explanation of the concept is needed. Task focuses on producing correct answers rather than developing mathematical understanding. Higher Level Demand 3.Processes with Connections: Use of procedures with the purpose of developing deeper levels of understanding concepts or ideas Task requires use of procedures to develop deeper understanding of the concept. Task suggests pathways to follow that are broad general procedures rather than algorithms that are opaque with respect to underlying concepts. Tasks are usually represented in multiple ways (e. g. visual diagrams, manipulatives, symbols, problem situations) Connections among the represent ations builds meaning to concept. Tasks require some thinking, although using a procedure t cannot be followed mindlessly. Students need to engage in conceptual ideas to successfully complete the task. Doing Concepts and Processes: Doing mathematics complex and non-algorithmic thinking, students explore and investigate the nature of the concepts and relationships Task requires access of relevant knowledge, self-reflection on actions, exploring concepts, processes and relationships in non-algorithmic activity. Task demands self-monitoring or self-regulation of thinking. – 4. – International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2012 139-147 (2012), 147 143 –Task requires analysis of constraints that may limit possible solution strategies and solutions. Task is unpredictable due to nature of solution process required. The focus in this component (the levels of cognitive demand) is the thinking processes in cognitive which learners engage in the observed lessons. In a constructivist classroom, learners are expected to think at a very high level, – as they are actively involved in their own learning. Apart from the analysis of the levels of cognitive demand, the data analysis members also s made some observations on how students interacted with the teacher.They made notes on these observations. Findings Levels of cognitive demand in classroom teaching in a sample of Botswana School 90 80 70 Percent of Lessons 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Memorization Procedures without connections Procedures with connections Doing mathematics The findings of the study indicated that 7. 3. 5% of the lessons required learners to recall a fact which in fact is memorization, 85% of the lessons do procedures without connections, and 23% do procedures with connections and only 3% students explore and investigate the nature of the concepts and relationships.From the video note observations, the data indicates that in most lessons teachers asked the s tudents questions and allowed the whole class to call out the answers. These findings concur with Arthur’s (1998), that â€Å"I observed many teacher dominated classroom procedures, in teacher-dominated particular lengthy recitations of questions by teacher and answers by individual or whole class† (p. 314). When teachers are the only ones asking questions and students being the s† respondents, learning is no longer centered on the learner but more on the teacher.Discussions From the findings it is evident that teachers used the procedural teaching and students learned by memorizing facts. When learners do the rote learning they are not encouraged to think critically and to construct their own knowledge as the teacher is the one who provides the one content for them. Memorization in Botswana classrooms is very common as evidenced by previous researchers such as Fuller and Snyder (1991), Arthur (1998), Tabulawa (2004, 1998, Thenjiwe Emily Major et al. 144 and 1997 ).Arthur and Martin (2006) in their study on comparative classroom teaching and learning found that most teachers in Botswana â€Å"ask low-level factual questions, with few opportunities for pupils†¦learners do not exercise their reasoning powers or imaginations† (p. 195). As data has indicated that lessons were predominately recalling of facts and procedures without any application to real life situations, one may assume that learners were not constructing their own knowledge but were simply spoon-fed by teachers. The National Commission on Education of Botswana (1977) also oncurs with this study that learning is mostly memorizing and recalling of facts which, in a way, does not add any value to the learning process. One of the goals of vision 2016 is for the education system of Botswana to provide quality education that would enable Batswana to adapt to the changing needs of the country as well as the global changes. This vision goal can be achieved if teachers adapt to theories such as constructivism that allow learners to explore and come up with their own solutions to the problems.Memorization and imitating teachers will not give Botswana learners sufficient wisdom to survive independently in this world of socio-political and economic unrest. From the data, one concludes that learners were not given tasks that challenged their thinking and the construction of their own knowledge. Henningsen and Stein (1997) noted that Mathematical tasks are central to students' learning because â€Å"tasks convey messages about what mathematics is and what doing mathematics entails†(NCTM, 1 991, p. 24). The tasks in which students engage provide the contexts in which they learn to think about subject students. p. 525) matter, and different tasks may place differing cognitive demands on Indeed if learners are given tasks that encourage memorization of ideas, according to Stein et al. ’s (2000) levels of cognitive demands, the learners are at the lowest level. In this level students are given formulas to memorize and just follow procedures without making any connections to real life situations. For example, in one of the videos the teacher was teaching the topic â€Å"area†. This is how she taught the lesson; first she asked the learners the meaning of the word area.Learners could not define the word, and instead of the teacher defining it, she gave the learners the formula for solving the area of a square. She then drew some shapes on the board, solved one as an example and then asked the learners to use the formula to find areas of the rest shapes. Indeed using the formula given, most learners were able to find the areas of the shapes drawn by their teacher. But can the learners apply the idea to real life? The procedure may be correct. However, did the learners make any connections to real life?From the analysis of the data it is evident that most tasks given to the learners only concentrated on the low levels of c ognitive demand. The task focused on producing correct answers rather than developing mathematical understanding. Various reasons such as examination driven curriculum may have contributed to Botswana teachers delivering facts (giving lower level tasks) to learners rather than allowing learners to think and construct their own knowledge. The centralized curriculum as well as examinations does contribute to teacher-domination as teachers are more concerned with completion of the syllabus at a given period.Arthur and Martin (2006) acknowledged that â€Å"pupils examination success provides access to further education in Botswana† (p. 192) forcing teachers to rush through the syllabus. This has also been confirmed by Tabulawa, (1998), that teachers’ perceptions of students and the goals of schooling have a direct influence in the way teachers teach because teachers see themselves as the main transmitters of knowledge, while students are passive recipients who must memoriz e and produce during examinations.Another reason may be the large numbers of teacher to students’ ratio which then encourages delivering of facts rather than allowing learners to construct their own knowledge. In a constructivist learning environment, learners learn best by discovering their own knowledge. Teachers encourage higher – level thinking so that students can reach beyond the simple factual response. Moreover, in a constructivist classroom, learners are encouraged to summarize concepts by analyzing, predicting, justifying, and defending their ideas.Cobb (1999) noted that â€Å"constructivist learning theory predicts that knowledge encoded from data by learners themselves will be more flexible, transferable, and useful than knowledge encoded for them by experts and transmitted to them by an instructor or other delivery agent† (p. 15). International Review of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2012), 139-147 145 In constructivism knowledge co nstruction is emphasized rather than knowledge reproduction. Knowledge construction helps the learners to remember what they have learned.The second highest level of cognitive demand encourages ‘use of procedures with the purpose of developing deeper levels of understanding concepts or ideas’. For learners to master the content, constructivist believe that higher order thinking skills and deeper understanding should be emphasized in the learning environment. Learners develop into critical thinkers if they are actively involved in the learning process and are encouraged to apply the concepts to real life situation. By this, learners are making meaningful connections.Learners can use their experiences to construct new information if given the opportunity to practice in the teaching/learning environment rather than having facts poured into them by the one in authority. The role of the teacher is to serve as a facilitator. The highest level of cognitive demand calls for doi ng mathematics complex and nonalgorithmic thinking, students explore and investigate the nature of the concepts and relationships. Tasks that learners are supposed to be engaged in should help them explore the relationship between concepts they are learning and reality.For, example, if learners are doing ‘area’ as a topic of study, let them explore the idea and find out how the topic can be applied in real life situations. Teachers should provide tasks that will lead the learners to explore, discover, and apply the concepts. Richard cited by Simon (1995) noted that It is necessary [for t he mathematics teacher] to provide a structure and a set of plans that support the development of informed exploration and reflective inquiry without taking initiative or control away from the student. The teacher must design tasks and projects that stimulate student to ask questions pose, problems, and set goals.Students will not become active learners by accident but by design through the use of the plans that we structure to guide exploration and inquiry. (118) It is, therefore, the responsibility of every teacher to plan activities that require high level of cognitive demand. It is important to note that high levels of cognitive demand require students to use their prior knowledge as advocated by the constructivists. Henningsen and Stein (1997) contended that â€Å"connections with what students already know and understand also play an important role in engaging students in high-level thought processes† (p. 27). For students to perform tasks that require critical thinking and applying of concepts, experience or prior knowledge used as a base is crucial. The findings in this study indicate that teachers did not engage the learners on tasks that required them to use higher levels of cognitive demand. These findings concur with what Prophet and Rowell cited by Fuller and Snyder (1991) that teachers in Botswana classrooms â€Å"ask for factual information through sentence completion exercise with pupils individual or in chorus simply adding the missing word.Students are rarely asked to explain the process or the interrelation between two or more event† (p. 276). This is a clear indication that teachers in Botswana classroom give learners tasks that are mostly associated with the low level of cognitive demand of which the constructivist theory does not encourage. The theory of constructivism also values the uniqueness of every learner. Students learn differently. The teacher, as the facilitator, should appreciate every learner’s strengths and weaknesses. Each learner should be given the opportunity to construct knowledge from his/her own experiences.Summary DeVries, Zan, Hildebrandt, Edmiaston, and Sales ( 2002) asserted that â€Å"teacherswho have been accustomed to teaching by telling and directing children’s work must shift from seeing themselves as central in producing learning to seeing thechild as centralâ⠂¬ (p. 36). From the study one concluded that there was a lot of spoon-feeding in most classes. Students were not given tasks that encouraged them to be doers and thinkers of mathematics, but rather to be consumers of mathematics concepts. Knowledge construction was very limited in most classes making learning more teacher-centered.Thenjiwe Emily Major et al. 146 The continued teacher domination in the Botswana teaching/learning environment will result in learners who cannot think deeply and critically. Knowledge is not passively received, but actively built up by the learners. Constructivism, therefore, encourages learners to be given the opportunity to construct their own knowledge from the previous experiences so at to be able to apply theory to practice and to make meaningful connections to what they learn to the real world. References [1] [2] J.Arthur, Institutional practices and the cultural construction of primary school teachers in Botswana, Comparative Education, 34(4) (19 98), 313-326. J. Arthur and P. Martin, Accomplishing lessons in postcolonial classrooms: Comparative perspectives from Botswana and Brunei Darussalam, Comparative Education, 42(2006), 177-202. S. K. W. Chu, K. Chow and S. K. Tse, Developing Hong Kong primary school students‘ information literacy and IT skills through collaborative teaching and inquiry PjBL, Library and Information Research, (2011), (In Press). T.Cobb, Applying constructivism: A test for the learner as scientist, Educational Technology Research and Development, 47(3) (1999), 15-31. R. DeVries, B. Zan, C. Hildebrandt, R. Edmiaston and C. Sales, Developing Constructivist Early Childhood Curriculum, (2002), New York: Teacher’s College Press. Educational Broadcasting Corporation, Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning, (2004), Retrieved on April 12 from http://www. thirteen. org/edonline/ concept2class/constructivism/index. html P. Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, (1970), New York: Herder a nd Herder.B. Fuller and C. Jr. Snyder, Vocal teachers, silent pupils? Life in Botswana classrooms, Comparative Education Review, 35(2) (1991), 274-294. M. Henningsen and M. R. Stein, Mathematical tasks and student cognition: Classroom-based factors that support and inhibit high-level mathematical thinking and reasoning, Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 28(5) ( 1997), 24549. Hausfather, Where is the content? The role of content in constructivist teacher education, Educational Horizons, 80(1) (2001), 15-19. S. Hmelo, E. Cindy, R. G. Duncan and C. A.Chinn, Scaffolding and achievement in problem based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirscher, Sweller and Clark (2006), Educational Psychologist, 42(2) (2007), 99-107. E. K. Katic, Hmelo-Silver and K. H. Weber, Material mediation: Tools and representations supporting collaborative problem-solving discourse, International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21(1) (2009), 13-24. M. M. Kennedy, Defining an i deal teacher education program, Paper prepared for the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, (March 1997), Retrieved on April 11 2011, from http://www. su. edu/~mkennedy/publications/Kennedy %20 to%20NCATE. pdf R. Prophet and P. M. Rowell, Coping and control: Science teaching strategies in Botswana, Qualitative Studies in Education, 6(3) (1993), 197-209. M. Simon, Reconstructing mathematics pedagogy from a constructivist perspective, Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 26(2) (1995), 114-145. D. F. Steele, A construct! Visit approach to mathematics teaching and learning by fourth–grade teachers, Unpublished Phd Dissertation, (1995), University of Florida. M. K. Stein, M. S. Smith, M.A. Henningsen and E. A. Silver, Implementing StandardsBased Mathematics Instruction: A Casebook for Professional Development, (2000), New York: Teachers College Press. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] International Review of Social Sc iences and Humanities, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2012), 139-147 147 [18] [19] [20] [21] The Report on the process of learning in Botswana: An in-depth study of the quality of mathematics teaching in sixth grade classrooms and its effect on learner achievement, Unpublished Document, (2011).R. T. Tabulawa, Geography students as constructors of classroom knowledge and practice: A case study from Botswana, Curriculum Studies, 36(1) (2004), 53-73. R. T. Tabulawa, Teachers' perspectives on classroom practice in Botswana: Implications for pedagogical change, International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 11(2) (1998), 249-68. R. T. Tabulawa, Pedagogical classroom practice and the social context: The case of Botswana, International Journal of Educational Development, 17(2) (1997), 189-204.

Literature in the Dark Ages: the Apocrypha

Professor Rodgers Humanities I November 5, 2010 Literature in the Dark Ages: The Apocrypha The Dark ages is referred to as such for many reasons there was plague and sickness that hit humanity during this time and people lived in fear to name a few. But one main reason is the fact that not much information exists about this period in history. Nearly all the ancient critical texts were lost during the Middle Ages. Emperor Flavius Juvianus ordered the burning of Antioch Library.Tons of books were burnt. Pagan temples and libraries were looted or burnt down (1). During the Dark Ages the literature by clergy was produced and preserved more than any other literature. The church was considered the authority on intellect at the time so it was there works that were reproduced in the greatest volume. Clergy therefore dominated literature during this time period. It was in the Dark Ages that there were records of as many as 200 epistles and accounts of the life of Jesus Christ that were said t o have been written.Only 27 were preserved. Of the 193 that were discarded Claytor 2 some people considered them to be fiction pieces of literature, some esteemed them as true and to some they were thought to be fraudulent. The writings that were believed to have been oppressed by Christians during the Dark ages are esteemed by some as lost spiritual teachings. In fact some of these teachings were discovered in 1945 and they expounded on the teachings that are recorded in the bible.They speak of a secret gospel of Mark, secret teachings of John, an account of the Gospels written by Thomas, the Apocalypse of Paul, as well as spiritual insight written by a woman which is called Pistils Sophia. These teachings are by a group called Gnostics. Gnostics were Christians whose belief system was based more upon knowledge than faith. Their name is derived the word Gnosis which is spiritual insight. They heavily embraced the hidden writings.It is likely that due to their Criticisms and differe nces with the Roman Orthodox church that members of the Gnostic sect were burned at the stake and many of their writings destroyed by the Church. Before the discovery of Gnostic writings, our only knowledge of additional accounts of the life and death of Jesus Christ came from a letter written by Church Father Clement of Alexandria (150 AD – 211 AD). In the letter Father Alexandria quotes this secret gospel and refers to it as â€Å"a more spiritual gospel for the use of those who were being perfected.    He said, â€Å"It Claytor 3 even yet is most carefully guarded [by the church at Alexandria], being read only to those who are being initiated into the great mysteries. (2). It is important to note that while Father Alexandria was a proponent of Gnosis, which was a knowledge or insight into the infinite, he rejected the concept as defined by the Gnostic sect. The oppressed writings were considered by some scholars as According to the Early Christian Church the additional writings of the life of Jesus were considered useful but were omitted from records because they weren’t considered to be divinely inspired.The gospels were separated into two categories. They are considered either canonical or non-canonical. The canonical writings are those that were included in the gospels in the bible. The non-canonical were called were considered apocryphal. The word Apocrypha literally means hidden writings. While the different branches of the early church disagreed about which writings were canonical and which were apocryphal they all subscribed to the belief that some writings were divinely inspired by God and others were not. Within the apocryphal writings are accounts of the infancy of Jesus in which they account the childhood of Jesus.There are those that give different perspectives of the passions and the Gospel of Thomas records many sayings of Jesus that are Claytor 4 not included in the bible. The early Christian church deemed many of these writ ings useful but do not believe all were divinely inspired. There are those who believe the lost writings are fraudulent or fiction works. Some of them that subscribe to this belief have concluded that, whether canonical or apocryphal, none of the accounts of the lives of Jesus are true.They believe that by omitting 173 of 200 accounts of the life of Jesus the church proves that it used the writings they selected to merely maintain their power and control. Edward Gibbon, a historian whose work has been heavily criticized by the Christian church, wrote â€Å"The origin of these fraudulent documents was none other than the church. Gibbon tells us: â€Å"Orthodox theologians were tempted, by the assurance of impunity, to compose fictions, which must be stigmatized with the epithets of fraud and forgery. They ascribed their own polemical works to the most venerable names of Christian antiquity. Others who challenge the validity of these writings are Christians who believe some accounts to be true but not others. J. G. Davis, A Christian teacher of Theology, wrote in his book The Early Christian Church â€Å"(they are merely) another genre of literature, devised for reading by the faithful during their leisure time, and corresponding in some ways to the novels of a later era. † Claytor 5 The oppressed ancient writings of Christianity are very controversial.There are little to no facts about the writings that are not debated, disagreed upon or refuted in some way. What is clear is that there are some writings about the life of Jesus that are either currently in existence or evidently existed at some time in history, although the number of apocryphal writings is uncertain. It is also certain that these writings give an account of the same occurrences as those considered canonical by the early Christian church. They are closely related writings that are recorded in the bible and considered by Christians as the true accounts of the life of Jesus.Claytor 6 Cited Workshttp://reluctant-messenger. com/Lost-Doctrines-Christianity003. htm  Ã‚  The Early Christian Church, p. 83 (1965). History of Christianity, p. 598http://www. gnosis. org/library/strom2. htm

Adversarial System essays

Adversarial System essays To begin with, it is essential to understand the basic underlying features of the adversary system. The adversary system defines a mode of dispute resolution in which the competing claims of parties are presented by legal representatives who have interest in the outcomes of dispute, to an impartial third party, with power to impose authorities. The vital notion that the judge controls the courtroom and decides the various issues of procedure, are the components of a true adversarial system. Furthermore, other important elements include that the state law enforcement agencies do investigative work for the state, whilst the opposing parties determine themselves what evidence each of them will present to the court. Most importantly, the defendant maintains presumption of innocence and has both the right to account for himself and the also right to a jury. These are the most important elements that constitute the adversary system, it is now necessary to demonstrate how this system have proved at times to be ineffective The adversarial systems effectiveness is reflected through the conduct of trial and reliability of circumstantial evidence presented by the crown in the original trial CHAMBERLAIN V. THE QUEEN where Lyndi was Criminally convicted of the murder of her son Azaria. This was overturned in the second trial (appeal) when all evidences, both physical and expert were reproduced and most were found to be circumstantial under re-examination and cross-examination. Evidently, the absence of the babys body, any identified weapon, lack of motive and no confession. The expert who had previously testified against the accused, also admitted he had given evidence without proper knowledge of all the attendant circumstances. The trial judge concluded that there was question mark as to weather the jury might have arrived this original verdict of the accused because they accepted the evidence that the blood was foetal, and whe...

Bard College Costs and Admissions Data

Bard College Costs and Admissions Data With an acceptance rate of 56  percent, Bard College is considered a somewhat selective school. Bard is a test-optional school, meaning that students who didnt take  or did poorly on the ACT or SAT, can still be considered for admission. Admissions to Bard are need-blind and test-optional, so a strong academic and extracurricular record are a must for this highly selective college. Since Bard uses the Common Application, students will have to complete the essay portion of that application. Applicants must also submit high school transcripts, letters of recommendation; optional materials include a resume of activities, awards,  and art portfolios for those interested in the art programs at Bard.   Admissions Data (2016) Bard College Acceptance Rate: 56%GPA, SAT and ACT Data for AdmissionTest ScoresSAT Critical Reading: 640 medianSAT Math: 620 medianACT Composite: 29 medianNote: Bard is a test-optional college Bard College Description: Located in Annandale-on-Hudson, a picturesque town about 90 miles north of New York City, Bard College is one of the countrys top liberal arts colleges. Bard prides itself on its faculty and a 10 to 1  student/faculty ratio. They tout 98 percent of classes having fewer than 30 students The faculty includes five MacArthur Fellows, and the school has been home to four recipients of the Nobel Prize in Literature. For a small college, Bard is remarkably international, with 22 percent of students representing 51 countries other than the U.S. On the athletic front, the Raptors compete in the NCAA Division III, within the Liberty League. Popular sports include basketball, soccer, lacrosse, swimming, and track and field. Enrollment (2016) Total Enrollment: 2,304  (1,970 undergraduates)Gender Breakdown: 42% Male / 58% Female96% Full-time Costs (2016 - 17) Tuition and Fees: $51,384Books: $950Room and Board: $14,540Other Expenses: $1,750Total Cost: $68,624 Bard College Financial Aid (2015- 16) Percentage of New Students Receiving Aid: 66%Percentage of New Students Receiving Types of AidGrants: 62%Loans: 48%Average Amount of AidGrants: $37,368Loans: $7,349 Academic Programs The most popular majors are  Fine Arts, Languages and Literatures, Sciences, and Social Sciences. Intercollegiate Athletic Programs Mens Sports:  Soccer, Lacrosse, Baseball, Volleyball, Cross Country, Basketball, Swimming, Tennis, Track and Field, SquashWomens Sports:  Swimming, Volleyball, Cross Country, Track and Field, Soccer, Lacrosse, Basketball, Tennis Graduation and Retention Rates First Year Student Retention (full-time students): 86%Transfer-out Rate: - %4-year Graduation Rate: 69%6-year Graduation Rate: 78% Data Source National Center for Educational Statistics Bard and the Common Application Bard College uses the Common Application. These articles can help guide you: Common Application essay tips and samplesShort answer tips and samplesSupplemental essay tips and samples

Assignment 3 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Assignment 3 - Research Paper Example The political dimension of immigration comes in when the immigrants’ stay is of a long-term nature. The national government may be required to facilitate their participation in the civil and political life of the nation. This dimension would be in the lines of involving them in discussions regarding policies that may affect their stay in the country (Moses, 2006). The national government may even include them in voting activities. The economic effects come in a variety of ways, both long-term and short-term. Receiving countries may address skill shortages and at the same time, this may result in a burden to public welfare and a decrease in domestic wages (International Labor Office, 2010). The sending countries benefit from receiving remittances from the work performed by their citizens while abroad. If we considered North-North migration patterns in 2013, statistics show a significant number of migrants moving between the Russian Federation and Ukraine. A total of 3.5 million migrants moved to Ukraine from Russia and another 2.9 million people move to the Russian Federation from Ukraine. This massive influx of migrants from these areas may be due to a variety of factors including political instability caused by civil unrest and differences in policies employed to counter these scenarios. In comparison with other migration fields in the south, the migration pattern between these two countries shows the largest mutual flow between any other countries as of 2013 statistics. This pattern is shown evidently by the graph below. Many of these migrants moved in search of a better life, and since the conditions keep on changing in this part of the world, they end up in constant movement from one place to another. They may also move in search of better economic prospects that their country of origin may not have been able to provide. Hence, the migrants’ movement would improve their standards of living. Apart from economic benefits, these migrants may have

The Medicinal Role of Different Foods as Held by Different Communities Literature review

The Medicinal Role of Different Foods as Held by Different Communities from Different Regions in the World - Literature review Example Food plays an integral role in the part of any human being in the sense that people cannot live without food. However, the choice of food matters for every individual because it determines whether a person is healthy or killing themselves with foods that are toxic to their bodies. Therefore, the food that people eat gives them information and materials to help the body in functioning appropriately. The amount of food that a person consumes also matter because when the body gets too much food it becomes undernourished, overweight and develops the risk of conditions and diseases that are a risk to the body such as heart disease, diabetes, and arthritis.   Therefore, what people eat is central to their health; food, on the other hand, can play a medicinal role where it maintains the health of the body by alleviating or curing diseases. However, there are other underlying benefits of foods, especially medicinal benefits, which most people do not forget to explore. Therefore, it is vita l for readers to understand how different foods they consume or ignore play an important role in their bodies. The research question in the essay is what are the medicinal role of various foods that are consumed by citizens every day? Many people have a clear understanding of the importance of eating healthy, in the United States cases of obesity and chronic diseases have been on the rise due to foods that are served in restaurants and in school where most school going children are obese. The five sources in the essay were selected after intensive research where I concluded on them because they have the content of information that is needed to explain the literature review in the essay. The sources have the basis of my discussion hence appropriate for the essay. Ensiyeh Seyedrezazadeh, Masoud Pour Moghaddam & Fariba Kolahdooz et al (2011) â€Å"Fruit and vegetable intake and risk of wheezing and asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis.† In this article, the author discusses the relationship between asthma and wheezing and the intake of fruits and vegetables.